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1. Keloid. 2.Pectus excavatum. 3.Name four abdominal surgical incisions. 4.Schedule of immunization for Oral Polio Vaccine. 5.Four clinical features of heart failure. 6.Motor milestones in a one year old child. 7.Causes of falls in elderly. 8.Body mass index. 9.(Causes of acute flaccid paralysis in children. 10.Pedicle graft. Make it in 2 marks for study purpose

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I now have enough information from the library to compose all 10 answers. Here are concise 2-mark study notes for each topic:

2-Mark Study Notes

1. Keloid

A keloid is an abnormal, exuberant scar that grows beyond the boundaries of the original wound into surrounding normal skin, unlike a hypertrophic scar which stays within the wound margins. It contains excess collagen, does not regress spontaneously, and tends to recur after excision. Common sites: earlobes, sternum, shoulders. More common in dark-skinned individuals. Treatment options include intralesional steroids, 5-fluorouracil injections, pressure therapy, and surgical excision (with adjuvant therapy to prevent recurrence).

2. Pectus Excavatum

Pectus excavatum ("funnel chest") is the most common congenital chest wall deformity, characterized by a posterior depression of the sternum and lower costal cartilages. It can cause reduced pulmonary function and cardiopulmonary compromise in severe cases, as well as significant psychological impact due to body image concerns. Severity is assessed by the Haller index (CT-based). Surgical correction options include the Nuss procedure (minimally invasive bar placement) and the Ravitch procedure (open cartilage resection). Surgery is indicated when the Haller index is >3.25 or when symptoms are significant.

3. Four Abdominal Surgical Incisions

IncisionDescription
Midline (Median)Vertical incision along the linea alba; rapid access, minimal bleeding
ParamedianVertical, ~2.5 cm lateral to midline; better healing strength
Kocher's (Right subcostal)Oblique below right costal margin; used for cholecystectomy
PfannenstielTransverse suprapubic; used in gynaecological and pelvic surgery
Others include: McBurney's (appendix), Gridiron, Roof-top (bilateral subcostal), Lanz incision.

4. OPV Immunization Schedule

(As per India's National Immunization Schedule / WHO EPI):
DoseAge
OPV 0 (Birth dose)At birth (within 15 days)
OPV 16 weeks
OPV 210 weeks
OPV 314 weeks
Booster 116-24 months
Booster 25 years
OPV is also given as pulse doses during National Immunization Days (NIDs) for polio eradication. Globally, many countries have switched to Inactivated Polio Vaccine (IPV) to eliminate vaccine-derived polio risk.

5. Four Clinical Features of Heart Failure

Left-sided Heart Failure:
  1. Dyspnoea (breathlessness on exertion, orthopnoea, paroxysmal nocturnal dyspnoea)
  2. Pulmonary oedema (basal crepitations on auscultation)
Right-sided Heart Failure:
  1. Peripheral oedema (pitting oedema of ankles and legs)
  2. Raised Jugular Venous Pressure (JVP) with hepatomegaly and ascites
Additional features: fatigue, S3 gallop, weight gain, reduced exercise tolerance.

6. Motor Milestones at One Year

A normal 1-year-old child should achieve:
  1. Stands alone without support (briefly)
  2. Walks with one hand held (or may take first independent steps)
  3. Cruises - walks holding onto furniture
  4. Pincer grasp - picks up small objects with tip of thumb and index finger (fine motor)
  5. Sits steadily without support (achieved earlier, by 9 months)
Key rule of thumb: Walks independently typically at 12-15 months; if not walking by 18 months, investigation is needed.

7. Causes of Falls in the Elderly

Falls in the elderly are multifactorial. Key causes:
Intrinsic (Patient-related):
  • Muscle weakness and impaired balance/gait (sarcopenia)
  • Visual and hearing impairment
  • Postural hypotension
  • Cognitive impairment / dementia
  • Peripheral neuropathy (e.g., diabetic)
  • Vestibular dysfunction - vertigo/dizziness
  • Medications (antihypertensives, sedatives, diuretics)
  • Cerebrovascular disease (TIAs, strokes)
Extrinsic (Environmental):
  • Slippery floors, poor lighting, loose rugs
  • Inappropriate footwear

8. Body Mass Index (BMI)

Formula: BMI = Weight (kg) / Height (m²)
Classification (WHO):
BMI (kg/m²)Category
< 18.5Underweight
18.5 - 24.9Normal
25.0 - 29.9Overweight
30.0 - 34.9Obese Class I
35.0 - 39.9Obese Class II
≥ 40Obese Class III (Morbid)
BMI correlates relatively well with total body fat and is the international standard for evaluating body weight in clinical and public health settings. Limitation: it does not distinguish fat mass from muscle mass.

9. Causes of Acute Flaccid Paralysis (AFP) in Children

AFP = sudden onset of floppiness/weakness with loss of tone - a notifiable condition in all countries.
Common causes:
  1. Poliomyelitis - Wild poliovirus (now rare due to vaccination) or vaccine-derived poliovirus
  2. Guillain-Barré Syndrome (GBS) - Most common cause of AFP in post-polio era; ascending paralysis after infection
  3. Transverse myelitis - Inflammation of spinal cord
  4. Enterovirus D68 / A71 - Increasingly recognized cause; also causes hand-foot-mouth disease
  5. Traumatic neuritis - Post-injection paralysis (piriform fossa injection)
  6. Botulism - Clostridium botulinum toxin
  7. Myasthenia gravis
  8. Viral encephalitis / meningitis - Coxsackievirus, echovirus, arboviruses (West Nile, Japanese encephalitis)

10. Pedicle Graft (Pedicle Flap)

A pedicle graft (flap) is a composite of skin and subcutaneous tissue (and sometimes muscle/fascia) that is transferred to a recipient site while maintaining its own blood supply via an attached pedicle (vascular stalk). This distinguishes it from a free graft.
Key features:
  • Blood supply is preserved through the pedicle until neovascularization at the new site occurs
  • The pedicle is divided ("inset") in a second stage once the flap has established new blood supply
  • Used for covering defects where a free skin graft would fail (infected, avascular, or weight-bearing areas)
Types:
  • Local pedicle flap - rotated/advanced from adjacent tissue (e.g., Z-plasty, rotation flap)
  • Distant pedicle flap - e.g., groin flap, cross-finger flap, tube pedicle
  • Island flap - pedicle is only the vessel, no skin bridge
Uses: Reconstruction after tumour excision, burns, pressure sores, traumatic defects.
Study tip: For 2-mark questions, aim for a definition + 2-3 key points or a short classification table. These answers cover the essential factual content typically expected.

Can I have an answer with a picture for each question

Generating Image

Medical diagram of a keloid scar on human skin showing raised, firm, shiny scar tissue extending beyond the original wound margins into surrounding normal skin, labeled with: keloid scar, normal skin, wound boundary, excess collagen. Clinical educational illustration.

Generating Image

Medical diagram of pectus excavatum (funnel chest) showing the anterior chest wall with a sunken sternum and lower costal cartilages compared to a normal chest. Side-by-side comparison labeled: normal chest, pectus excavatum, sternum, costal cartilages. Clean educational anatomy illustration.

Generating Image

Medical diagram showing four major abdominal surgical incisions on a human abdomen outline: Midline (vertical along linea alba), Paramedian (vertical lateral to midline), Kocher's/Right subcostal (oblique below right costal margin), and Pfannenstiel (transverse suprapubic). Each incision clearly labeled with its name and indication. Clean surgical anatomy educational chart.

Generating Image

Medical immunization schedule chart for Oral Polio Vaccine (OPV) showing a timeline from birth to 5 years with dose markers: OPV 0 at birth, OPV 1 at 6 weeks, OPV 2 at 10 weeks, OPV 3 at 14 weeks, Booster 1 at 16-24 months, Booster 2 at 5 years. Clean colorful vaccination schedule table for study.

Generating Image

Medical educational diagram showing four clinical features of heart failure: 1) Dyspnoea with lungs showing pulmonary congestion, 2) Raised JVP with distended neck veins, 3) Peripheral pitting oedema of ankles, 4) Enlarged liver (hepatomegaly). Human body outline with labeled arrows pointing to each feature. Clear clinical cardiology study illustration.

Generating Image

Pediatric developmental milestone chart for a 1-year-old child showing motor milestones: standing alone, walking with support/cruising along furniture, pincer grasp picking up small object, sitting independently. Illustrated with simple child figures demonstrating each skill. Labeled educational pediatrics diagram.

Generating Image

Medical educational infographic showing causes of falls in the elderly divided into two categories: Intrinsic causes (muscle weakness, poor vision, postural hypotension, medications, neuropathy, cognitive impairment) and Extrinsic causes (slippery floor, poor lighting, loose rugs). Elderly person figure with labeled risk factor arrows. Clean geriatrics study chart.

Generating Image

Medical BMI (Body Mass Index) educational chart showing the formula BMI = weight(kg) / height(m²), with a color-coded classification table: Underweight less than 18.5 (blue), Normal 18.5-24.9 (green), Overweight 25-29.9 (yellow), Obese Class I 30-34.9 (orange), Obese Class II 35-39.9 (red), Morbid Obesity over 40 (dark red). Clean nutrition/clinical medicine study diagram.

Generating Image

Medical diagram showing causes of Acute Flaccid Paralysis (AFP) in children as a labeled wheel or list: Poliomyelitis, Guillain-Barre Syndrome, Transverse Myelitis, Enterovirus D68/A71, Traumatic Neuritis, Botulism, with a child figure showing limp/flaccid limbs. Educational neurology/pediatrics chart.

Generating Image

Medical surgical diagram of a pedicle flap/graft showing step-by-step: 1) Skin flap raised with pedicle (blood supply) attached, 2) Flap rotated/transferred to recipient defect site while pedicle remains intact, 3) Final inset after neovascularization. Labels: pedicle, blood supply, donor site, recipient site, flap. Clean plastic surgery educational illustration.

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