Now I have comprehensive information from the textbooks. Let me compile a complete, well-structured ECG basics guide.
ECG Basics & Interpretation
What is an ECG?
The electrocardiogram (ECG/EKG) is a measurement of tiny potential differences on the body surface that reflect the electrical activity of the heart. These voltages are detectable because the atria and ventricles depolarize and repolarize in a specific sequence, creating potential differences between cardiac regions that surface electrodes can detect.
— Costanzo Physiology 7th Edition; Goldman-Cecil Medicine
The ECG Paper
Standard calibration (25 mm/sec, 10 mm/mV):
- Small box (1 mm) = 0.04 sec (40 ms) horizontally; 0.1 mV vertically
- Large box (5 mm) = 0.2 sec (200 ms) horizontally; 0.5 mV vertically
- A standard ECG runs for 10 seconds, with 12 leads recorded simultaneously
The Waveforms
| Wave / Interval | What it represents |
|---|
| P wave | Atrial depolarization |
| PR interval | Atrial depolarization + AV node + His-Purkinje conduction delay |
| PR segment | AV node conduction (isoelectric) |
| QRS complex | Ventricular depolarization |
| ST segment | Early ventricular repolarization (normally isoelectric) |
| T wave | Ventricular repolarization |
| QT interval | Total ventricular activity (depolarization + repolarization) |
| U wave | Rarely visible; possibly Purkinje repolarization or M-cell activity |
| J point | Junction between end of QRS and start of ST segment |
Note: Atrial repolarization is not visible — it is buried under the QRS complex because ventricular mass far exceeds atrial mass.
Normal Intervals
| Parameter | Normal Range |
|---|
| Heart rate | 50–100 bpm |
| P wave duration | < 120 ms (< 3 small boxes) |
| PR interval | 90–200 ms (2.5–5 small boxes) |
| QRS duration | 75–110 ms (< 3 small boxes) |
| QTc (males) | 390–450 ms |
| QTc (females) | 390–460 ms |
| QRS axis | −30° to +90° |
— Goldman-Cecil Medicine, Table 42-1
Heart Rate Calculation
Regular rhythm:
- HR = 300 ÷ number of large boxes between R waves
- Quick method: 300 → 150 → 100 → 75 → 60 → 50 (for 1 to 5 large boxes)
Irregular rhythm (e.g. AF):
- Count beats in 10-second strip × 6
The 12 Leads
Limb Leads (Frontal Plane)
- Lead I: Right arm (−) vs. Left arm (+)
- Lead II: Right arm (−) vs. Left leg (+)
- Lead III: Left arm (−) vs. Left leg (+)
- aVR, aVL, aVF: Augmented unipolar leads
In normal sinus rhythm, P waves and QRS complexes are positive in I, II, III, aVF and negative in aVR because depolarization moves from right to left and craniocaudally.
Precordial Leads (Transverse Plane)
Electrodes V1–V6 are positioned across the chest wall.
- V1 (right of sternum): Dominant S wave (activation moving away)
- V6 (mid-axillary): Dominant R wave (activation moving toward it)
- Normal R-wave progression: R wave grows from V1 → V6 (transition at V3–V4)
Systematic Interpretation Approach
A reliable stepwise method:
- Rate — Is it normal (60–100), bradycardic (<60), or tachycardic (>100)?
- Rhythm — Is it regular or irregular? Is there a P wave before every QRS?
- Axis — Normal (−30° to +90°)? Left axis deviation (<−30°)? Right axis deviation (>+90°)?
- P wave — Present? Upright in I and II (confirms sinus)? Duration < 120 ms?
- PR interval — 90–200 ms? Prolonged = 1st-degree AV block. Short = pre-excitation?
- QRS complex — Duration < 110 ms? Pathological Q waves? R-wave progression?
- ST segment — Isoelectric? Elevation = injury/STEMI? Depression = ischemia/NSTEMI?
- T wave — Concordant with QRS? Inversion = ischemia, strain? Peaked = hyperkalemia?
- QT interval — Calculate QTc. Prolonged > 450 ms (♂) / 460 ms (♀)?
Key Abnormality Patterns (Quick Reference)
| Finding | Possible Cause |
|---|
| Wide QRS (>110 ms) | Bundle branch block, hyperkalemia, pre-excitation |
| PR > 200 ms | 1st-degree AV block |
| ST elevation | STEMI, pericarditis, Brugada, early repolarization |
| ST depression | NSTEMI/ischemia, digitalis effect, LVH strain |
| Peaked symmetrical T waves | Hyperkalemia |
| T-wave inversion | Ischemia, PE, LVH strain, Takotsubo |
| Absent P waves + irregular R-R | Atrial fibrillation |
| QTc prolongation | Drugs (e.g. antiarrhythmics, antibiotics), electrolyte disturbance |
| J wave (Osborn wave) | Hypothermia, hypercalcemia |
Sources: Goldman-Cecil Medicine International Edition (Ch. 42); Costanzo Physiology 7th Ed.; Braunwald's Heart Disease