Give answer for my physiology exam MBBS 2nd year for the given questions medical student answers only HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY. EXAM PROGRAMME Physiology of excitable tissues 1. Types of transport of substances across the cell membrane. Active and passive transport. Irritability and excitability – definitions. 2. Membrane potential. Resting membrane potential. Natura. Initiation of action potential. 3. Action potential propagation in myelinated and unmyelinated nerve fibers. "All or nothing" law. 4. Transmission of impulses from nerves to skeletal muscle fibers. Neuromuscular junction. 5. Excitation – contraction coupling. Sliding theory of muscle threads. 6. Characteristics of isometric and isotonic muscular contractions. 7. General mechanism of muscle contraction (twitch). Contraction time in “fast” and “slow” skeletal muscles. 8. Superposition of stimuli. Tetanus. Classification. Mechanisms. Effects of multiple stimuli. 9. Skeletal muscle tone. Motor unit. 10. Membrane and action potentials in smooth muscles. 11. Types of smooth muscles. Contractile mechanism in smooth muscles. Physiology of blood and body fluids 1. Circulating Body Fluids. Composition of body fluids. Measurements of volumes. 2. Properties and composition of blood. Hematocrit value, viscosity, specific gravity. Functions of blood. 3. Plasma proteins. Classification. Functions. 4. Red blood cells. Number, structure and functions. Red blood cell count. Hemolysis and osmotic fragility of red blood cells. 5. Erythrocyte Sedimentation Rate (ESR). Determination, normal values. Factors affecting ESR. 2 6. Hemoglobin. Structure. Classification. Functions. Normal values. Varieties of hemoglobin. 7. White blood cells. Morphology. Normal count. Functions of white blood cells. 8. Coagulation of blood. Stages. Formation of prothrombin activator. Factors of coagulation. 9. Blood clot. Retraction and lysis of blood clot. 10. Substances which prevent coagulation of blood. Anticoagulants. Physical methods to prevent blood clotting. 11. ABO blood groups. ABO blood typing. 12. Agglutinogens and agglutinins of blood. Inheritance of ABO and other blood groups. Transfusion Reactions Resulting from Mismatched Blood Types. 13. Rh-factor. Inheritance. Transfusion reactions due to Rh incompatibility. Rh- сonflict between mother and fetus. 14. Lymphatic system and lymph formation. Composition and functions of lymph. Endocrinology 1. Classification of hormones. Mechanisms of action. 2. Hypothalamic control of pituitary secretion. The hypothalamic-pituitary system. 3. Posterior pituitary gland and its relation to hypothalamus. 4. Hormones of anterior pituitary gland. 5. Thyroid metabolic hormones. Functions. 6. Glucocorticoids. Functions. Mechanisms. Effects and functions of mineralocorticoids. 7. G. Selye's theory of stress. The role of hormones in the development of stress reactions, a chain of mechanisms. 8. Insulin and its metabolic effects. 9. Regulation of calcium / phosphorus concentration in blood plasma and interstitial fluid. 10. Hormones of pancreatic islets. Effects and functions. 3 Renal physiology 1. Selection system. Functions. Classification of substances required for removal. 2. Nephrons. Classification. Structure. Functions. Renin-angiotensin system. 3. Glomerular filtration. Factors affecting glomerular filtration rate. 4. Composition of glomerular filtrate. Determination of glomerular filtration rate. 5. Proximal tubular reabsorption. 6. Solute and water transport in the loop of Henle. Role of the loop in urine formation. 7. Regulation of water reabsorption in kidney. 8. The importance of the kidneys in pH maintaining. Buffer systems. Mechanisms. Heart and circulation 1. The cardiac cycle. Subdivision of cardiac cycle and relaxation time. Pressure in the cavities of the heart and the condition of the valve apparatus. 2. Work output of heart. Contractility of heart. “All or None” law. 3. Specialized excitatory and conductive system of heart. Velocity of conduction at different parts of the conductive system. 4. Automatic electrical rhythmicity of heart. Refractory period of cardiac muscle. Extra systole and compensatory pause. 5. Valves of heart. Description of each event of cardiac cycle. Description of heart sound. 6. Characteristic of normal electrocardiogram. Origin. Classification of leads – locations of electrodes. 7. Control of cardiac output by venous return – Frank-Starling mechanism of heart. Heart – lung preparation. 8. Sympathetic and parasympathetic control of the heart. 4 effects for each control. 9. The role of baroreceptors in regulation of heart rate. Vagal tone. 10. Cardiac and circulatory outputs during physical exercise and stress. 11. Interrelationships among pressure, flow and resistance of the vessels. Ohm's law for vessels. 4 12. Pressure gradient in the various segments of the circulatory system. 13. Blood pressure. Measuring of systolic and diastolic pressure. Natura. 14. Necessary factors (nervous and humoral) for the maintenance of blood pressure – classification. 15. Nervous (rapid) control of arterial pressure. Brain vasomotor center and role in arterial pressure control. 16. Long-term regulation of arterial blood pressure. 17. Humoral regulation of blood pressure. Classification. 18. Cardiovascular adjustments during exercise. 19. Role of systemic arterial baroreceptors in regulation of arterial blood pressure. 20. Control of arterial blood pressure by chemoreceptors. Respiratory system 1. Muscle factors for lung expansion and contraction in resting state and physical loading. Compliance and extensibility of lungs. Role of surfactant. 2. Minute respiratory volume. Alveolar ventilation. Pulmonary volumes and capacities. Spirograph’ data. 3. Anatomical and physiological dead spaces. Biological significance, functions and volumes. 4. Composition of alveolar air. Its relation to atmospheric air. Oxygen and carbon dioxide concentrations and their partial pressure levels. 5. Diffusion of gases through the respiratory membrane. 6. Oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve. Shifts of curve and its significance. 7. Gas exchange between blood and tissues. Carbon dioxide and oxygen transport in blood. 8. Respiratory center. Dorsal and ventral respiratory groups of neurons. Pneumotaxis and apnea centers. 9. Receptors of lungs. Stretch, irritant, “J” receptors. 5 10. Direct and peripheral control of respiration. Role of oxygen, carbon dioxide and pH in regulation of respiration. Role of central and peripheral chemoreceptors. 11. Regulation of respiration during physical exercise. Digestive system 1. Salivary glands. Properties and composition of saliva. Regulation. The importance of digestion in the oral cavity. 2. Structure and functions of gastric glands. Types of gastric cells. Properties and composition of gastric juice. 3. Cephalic, gastric and intestinal phases of gastric secretion. Mechanisms. 4. Properties, composition and function of pancreatic juice (external function of pancreas). 5. Regulation of pancreatic secretion. 6. Functions of liver. Classification and regulation of bile (secretion). 7. Digestion and absorption of proteins, carbohydrates and lipids. 8. Gastrointestinal motility. 9. Gastrointestinal hormones. 10. Parietal digestion. Ugolev's concept. Metabolic rate and Body Temperature Regulation 1. Measurement of whole-body metabolic rate. Direct and indirect calorimetry. Basal metabolic rate. Determination. 2. Energy intake and output. Components of energy expenditure. Dietary balance. 3. Various methods by which heat is lost from skin to surroundings. Regulation of body temperature. Role of hypothalamus. 4. Adaptive reactions of migrants at high latitudes (low temperature). Specific changes in the respiratory system under the influence low temperatures. 5. Adaptive reactions of migrants at low latitudes (high temperature). Thermal damage to the body and its prevention. Thermal index stress. 6 Sensory physiology 1. General structure (scheme) and classification of sensory system. 2. Receptors. Classification. Formation of the receptor, generator and active potentials. 3. Coding in sensory systems. Classification. 4. General properties of sensory systems. 5. Optics of vision. Mechanisms of accommodation, refraction. Anomalies. 6. Control of pupillary diameter. Role of the pupil. 7. Tricolor mechanism of color detection. Rods and cones. Their localization and function. Anomalies. 8. Structural and functional scheme of the visual system. 9. Psychophysiology of vision. Color sensations. Perception of depth of space. Perimeter measuring. 10. Structure and function of the auditory system. Hearing. The external, middle and internal ear. Cochlear function. 11. Structure and functions of the vestibular system. 12. Structure and functions of the olfactory and gustatory systems. 13. Structure and functions of the motor system. 14. Structure and functions of somatosensory systems. 15. Structure and functions of the interceptive system. Physiology of the mental activity 1. Methods for studying the central nervous system and mental activity. 2. Functional systems (acad. P.K. Anokhin), diagram, classification. 3. Electroencephalogram (EEG) and sensory evoked potentials. Brain waves. Origin of the brain waves. 4. I.P. Pavlov’s concept on higher nervous activity. Personality types. 5. Subjective and objective psychological testing. Classification. 7 6. Unconditioned and conditioned reflexes: definition, comparative characteristics. 7. Structural and functional diagram of a conditioned reflex. 8. Conditions for the development of conditioned reflexes and temporary connection. 9. Classification of conditioned reflexes. 10. Inhibition of conditioned reflexes. Classification. 11. Structural and functional characteristics of the spinal cord and brain stem. 12. Mechanisms of coordinated reflex activities. 13. Static and statokinetic reflexes. Decerebrate rigidity (conditions). 14. Cerebellum, structure, connections, functions. Pathology of the cerebellum. 15. Segmental apparatus of the spinal cord and brainstem 16. Morpho-functional features of the diencephalon. Thalamic nuclei. Hypothalamus. Limbic system. 17. Morpho-functional features of the cerebral cortex. 18. Localization of functions in the cerebral hemispheres. Basics of neuropsychology. 19. Projection and association nerve centers of the cerebral cortex. 20. Sleep-wake cycle. Types, stages, mechanisms of sleep. 21. Types of emotions. Mechanisms of emotions. Theories of emotions. 22. Types of memory (classification). Mechanisms of memory. Memory disorders. 23. Physiological meaning of pain. Classification of pain. Psychophysiology of pain. 24. Nociceptive reactions. Neurophysiological mechanisms. Protopathic and epicritic sensitivity

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