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1. Digestion of disaccharides in the intestine. Enzymes of this process. 2. Glycolysis. Write irreversible reactions and key enzymes of glycolysis. Bioenergetics and the biological significance of the process. 3. Oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate. Localization and energy balance. 4. Pathology of carbohydrate metabolism. Diabetes. Send answers with formulas

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glycolysis AND diabetes

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WHO diabetes fact sheet diagnosis diabetes 2025

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ADA Standards of Care 2026 diabetes diagnosis criteria fasting plasma glucose A1C

This covers four linked biochemistry topics:
  1. Intestinal digestion of disaccharides
    • Brush-border enzymes: lactase, sucrase-isomaltase, maltase-glucoamylase, and trehalase.
    • Hydrolysis formulas and final monosaccharide products.
  2. Glycolysis
    • All 10 reactions, with emphasis on the 3 irreversible steps:
      • Hexokinase/glucokinase
      • Phosphofructokinase-1
      • Pyruvate kinase
    • ATP/NADH balance in aerobic and anaerobic conditions, plus physiologic roles.
  3. Oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate
    • Mitochondrial pyruvate dehydrogenase complex, its cofactors, reaction sequence, regulation, and energy yield.
  4. Carbohydrate-metabolism pathology: diabetes mellitus
    • Type 1 versus type 2 diabetes, biochemical abnormalities, hyperglycemia consequences, ketoacidosis, and chronic complications.
The core formulas you will need include:
[ \text{Sucrose} + H_2O \xrightarrow{\text{sucrase}} \text{Glucose} + \text{Fructose} ]
[ \text{Lactose} + H_2O \xrightarrow{\text{lactase}} \text{Glucose} + \text{Galactose} ]
[ \text{Glucose} + 2ADP + 2P_i + 2NAD^+ \rightarrow 2\text{Pyruvate} + 2ATP + 2NADH + 2H^+ + 2H_2O ]
[ \text{Pyruvate} + CoA-SH + NAD^+ \xrightarrow{\text{PDH complex}} \text{Acetyl-CoA} + CO_2 + NADH + H^+ ]
Which section should I write out in full first?
  1. Disaccharide digestion
  2. Glycolysis
  3. Pyruvate oxidative decarboxylation
  4. Diabetes mellitus
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