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B.Pharma 2nd Semester - Human Anatomy & Physiology II (BP201T)

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Full 2nd Semester Course Structure

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HAP II (BP201T) - Detailed Unit-Wise Syllabus

Unit I - Digestive System (08 hrs)

• Anatomy of the digestive system - organs of the GI tract (mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small & large intestine)
• Physiology of digestion - mechanical and chemical digestion
• Digestion and absorption of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats
• Role of liver, pancreas, and gallbladder
• Energetics - formation and role of ATP, creatine phosphate, and Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR)
• Disorders of the GIT

Unit II - Respiratory System (10 hrs)

• Anatomy of the respiratory system with special reference to the lungs
• Mechanism of respiration (inspiration and expiration)
• Regulation of respiration (neural and chemical control)
• Lung volumes and capacities (TV, IRV, ERV, RV, TLC, FRC, etc.)
• Transport of respiratory gases (O2 and CO2 in blood)
• Artificial respiration
• Disorders of the respiratory system

Unit III - Urinary System (08 hrs)

• Anatomy of the urinary system - kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra
• Nephron structure in detail
• Mechanisms of urine formation:
  • Glomerular filtration
  • Tubular reabsorption
  • Tubular secretion
• Regulation of urine concentration - counter-current mechanism
• Micturition reflex
• Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System (RAAS)
• Disorders of the urinary system (renal failure, UTI, nephrotic syndrome, etc.)

Unit IV - Endocrine System (10 hrs)

• Classification of hormones (steroid, peptide, amine)
• Mechanisms of hormone action (receptor-based)
• Structure and functions of:
  • Pituitary gland (anterior & posterior lobes, hormones)
  • Thyroid gland (T3, T4, calcitonin)
  • Parathyroid gland (PTH)
  • Adrenal gland (cortex - glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, androgens; medulla - epinephrine, norepinephrine)
  • Pancreas (insulin, glucagon - regulation of blood glucose)
  • Pineal gland (melatonin)
  • Thymus (thymosin)
• Disorders of each gland (diabetes mellitus, hyperthyroidism, Cushing's syndrome, Addison's disease, etc.)

Unit V - Reproductive System & Genetics (09 hrs)

• Male reproductive system - anatomy, spermatogenesis, testosterone, male sex hormones
• Female reproductive system - anatomy, oogenesis, estrogen, progesterone
• Physiology of menstruation (menstrual cycle - follicular, ovulatory, luteal phases)
• Fertilization, pregnancy, and parturition
• Introduction to Genetics:
  • Chromosomes, genes, and DNA
  • Protein synthesis (transcription and translation)
  • Genetic patterns of inheritance (Mendelian genetics, dominant/recessive traits)

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Practical Component (BP207P)

• Microscopic examination of tissues (GIT mucosa, lung, kidney histology)
• Spirometry / lung function tests (measuring lung volumes)
• Study of kidney models/specimens
• Reproductive organ histology slides
• Blood glucose estimation
• Urine analysis (routine examination)

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Scope & Objectives

1. Explain gross morphology, structure, and functions of various organs
2. Describe homeostatic mechanisms and their imbalances
3. Identify tissues and organs of different systems
4. Correlate structure-function relationships relevant to pharmacy practice

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Recommended Reference Books

• Essentials of Medical Physiology - K. Sembulingam & Prema Sembulingam
• Textbook of Medical Physiology - Guyton & Hall
• Human Anatomy & Physiology - Marieb & Hoehn
• Anatomy & Physiology - Ross & Wilson
• Concise Medical Physiology - Chaudhuri

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Digestive System - B.Pharma 2nd Sem (BP201T - Unit I)

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1. Overview & Organization

1. Digestion - physical and chemical breakdown of food
2. Absorption - uptake of nutrients into the bloodstream

Components:

• Alimentary canal (GI tract): Mouth → Pharynx → Esophagus → Stomach → Small Intestine (Duodenum, Jejunum, Ileum) → Large Intestine → Rectum → Anus
• Accessory organs: Salivary glands, Liver, Gallbladder, Pancreas

Four Major Activities:

1. Motility - propels and mixes food from mouth to rectum
2. Secretion - adds fluid, enzymes, electrolytes, mucus
3. Digestion - breaks food into absorbable molecules
4. Absorption - transfers nutrients, water, and electrolytes into bloodstream

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2. Anatomy of the GI Tract Wall (Layers)

Nerve Plexuses (Enteric Nervous System):

• Meissner's plexus (submucosal) - controls secretion
• Auerbach's plexus (myenteric) - controls motility/peristalsis

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3. Oral Cavity

Structures:

• Vestibule - space between lips/cheeks and teeth
• Oral cavity proper - bounded by hard and soft palates (above), tongue (below)

Functions of the Mouth:

• Mastication (chewing) - mechanical breakdown of food
• Mixing with saliva - chemical digestion begins here
• Bolus formation - food shaped for swallowing

Salivary Glands (3 paired glands):

Composition of Saliva:

• Water, electrolytes (high K+, HCO3-; low Na+, Cl-)
• Salivary amylase (ptyalin) - digests starch → maltose
• Lingual lipase - initiates fat digestion
• Mucin - lubrication
• Lysozyme, IgA - antimicrobial protection
• pH: ~6.8-7.0 (slightly acidic to neutral)

Note: Saliva is hypotonic compared to plasma. Daily volume = ~1-1.5 L.

Control of Salivary Secretion:

• Parasympathetic (dominant) - increases watery saliva (via cranial nerves VII & IX)
• Sympathetic - increases thick, mucous-rich saliva
• Stimulated by food smell, taste, sight, and chewing

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4. Pharynx & Esophagus

• Pharynx - common passage for food and air; swallowing (deglutition) begins here
• Esophagus - muscular tube (~25 cm) connecting pharynx to stomach
  • Upper 1/3: skeletal muscle; Middle 1/3: mixed; Lower 1/3: smooth muscle
  • Lower Esophageal Sphincter (LES) / Cardiac sphincter - prevents reflux of stomach contents
  • Peristalsis propels the bolus downward

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5. Stomach

Gross Anatomy:

• Regions: Cardia, Fundus, Body (corpus), Antrum, Pylorus
• Pyloric sphincter controls passage of chyme into duodenum

Gastric Glands & Secretory Cells:

Gastric Secretion - HCl:

• HCl converts pepsinogen → pepsin (active proteolytic enzyme)
• Kills bacteria in food
• Provides acidic pH (~1.5-3.5) needed for pepsin activity
• Mechanism: Parietal cells use H+/K+ ATPase (proton pump) to secrete H+

Phases of Gastric Secretion:

Gastric Motility:

• Mixing waves - mix food with gastric juice → chyme
• Peristalsis - propels chyme toward pylorus
• Stomach empties in ~2-6 hours depending on meal composition

Protection from Self-Digestion:

• Mucus layer forms a gel barrier
• HCO3- trapped in mucus neutralizes any H+ that penetrates
• Prostaglandin E2 maintains the mucosal barrier

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6. Small Intestine (Major site of digestion & absorption)

Regions:

1. Duodenum (~25 cm) - receives chyme, bile, and pancreatic juice
2. Jejunum (~2.5 m) - major site of absorption
3. Ileum (~3.5 m) - absorbs vitamin B12, bile salts; ends at ileocecal valve

Structural Adaptations to Increase Surface Area:

Combined surface area of small intestine ≈ 200 m² (size of a tennis court!)

Intestinal Secretions:

• Brunner's glands (duodenum) - secrete alkaline mucus to neutralize acid chyme
• Crypts of Lieberkühn - secrete intestinal juice (succus entericus) containing water, electrolytes, and enzymes
• Brush border enzymes: Maltase, sucrase, lactase (carbohydrates), peptidases (proteins)

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7. Digestion & Absorption

A. Carbohydrate Digestion:

B. Protein Digestion:

C. Fat Digestion:

Key difference: Fats go through lymphatics, while carbs & proteins go through portal blood.

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8. Large Intestine (Colon)

Parts: Cecum → Ascending → Transverse → Descending → Sigmoid colon → Rectum → Anal canal

Functions:

• Absorption of water and electrolytes (mainly Na+ and water) - converts liquid chyme to semi-solid feces
• Absorption of vitamins (K, B12) produced by gut bacteria
• Fermentation of undigested fiber by colonic bacteria → short-chain fatty acids + gases (CO2, H2, CH4)
• Storage and elimination of feces (defecation)

No villi in the large intestine - only crypts of Lieberkühn

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9. Accessory Organs

A. Pancreas (Exocrine Function)

• Secretin (from S cells of duodenum, triggered by acid) → stimulates HCO3- secretion
• CCK (from I cells of duodenum, triggered by fat + protein) → stimulates enzyme secretion

B. Liver

• Bile salts - emulsify fats for digestion
• Bilirubin - bile pigment (breakdown product of hemoglobin)
• Cholesterol, phospholipids, water, electrolytes

C. Gallbladder

• Stores and concentrates bile
• CCK → contracts gallbladder + relaxes Sphincter of Oddi → bile released into duodenum

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10. Gastrointestinal Hormones (Summary)

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11. Energetics (ATP & BMR)

ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate):

• The universal energy currency of the cell
• Generated by: Glycolysis (cytoplasm), Krebs cycle (mitochondrial matrix), Oxidative phosphorylation (inner mitochondrial membrane)
• 1 glucose → ~36-38 ATP (aerobic), 2 ATP (anaerobic)

Creatine Phosphate:

• High-energy phosphate reserve in muscle cells
• Rapidly regenerates ATP during sudden bursts of activity: Creatine-P + ADP → Creatine + ATP (via creatine kinase)
• Provides energy for first ~10 seconds of intense activity

Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR):

• The rate of energy expenditure at complete rest to maintain basic life functions (breathing, circulation, temperature regulation)
• Measured in kcal/day
• Normal BMR: Males ~1600-1800 kcal/day; Females ~1200-1400 kcal/day
• Factors affecting BMR:
  • ↑ BMR: Hyperthyroidism, fever, stress, exercise training, male sex, youth
  • ↓ BMR: Hypothyroidism, starvation, old age, female sex

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12. Common Disorders (Important for Exams)

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Quick Revision Points

• Digestion begins in the mouth (amylase) and is completed in the small intestine
• Stomach - mainly protein digestion; HCl activates pepsinogen → pepsin
• Duodenum - most important site for regulation of digestion (secretin, CCK)
• Jejunum - major site of absorption
• Ileum - absorbs vitamin B12 (with intrinsic factor) and bile salts
• Fats absorbed via lymphatics; carbs + proteins via portal blood
• Intrinsic factor (from parietal cells) is essential for B12 absorption; its absence causes Pernicious anemia

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