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Classification of Drugs in Pharmacognosy

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1. Morphological (Organised/Unorganised) Classification

A. Organised Drugs

• Leaves – Digitalis, Senna, Tulsi
• Flowers – Clove, Saffron, Chamomile
• Fruits – Fennel, Coriander, Capsicum
• Seeds – Nux vomica, Linseed, Strophanthus
• Bark – Cinchona, Cinnamon, Cascara
• Wood – Quassia, Sandalwood
• Roots – Aconite, Liquorice, Ipecacuanha
• Rhizomes – Ginger, Turmeric, Valerian
• Stems/Herbs – Ephedra, Rauwolfia

B. Unorganised Drugs

• Latex (Milky juice) – Opium, Papain
• Resins – Colophony, Jalap
• Gum-resins – Asafoetida, Myrrh
• Gums – Acacia, Tragacanth
• Fixed oils and fats – Castor oil, Coconut oil
• Volatile (essential) oils – Clove oil, Eucalyptus oil
• Waxes – Beeswax, Carnauba wax
• Dried juices – Aloe, Jalap resin

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2. Taxonomical (Botanical/Zoological) Classification

• Kingdom: Plantae / Animalia
• Order → Family → Genus → Species

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3. Chemical Classification

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4. Pharmacological (Therapeutic) Classification

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5. Chemo-taxonomical Classification

• Solanaceae family → Tropane alkaloids (Belladonna, Hyoscyamus, Datura)
• Papaveraceae family → Opium alkaloids
• Rubiaceae family → Quinoline alkaloids (Cinchona)

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6. Serotaxonomical Classification

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Summary Table

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Important Points for Exam

• The chemical classification is most widely used in pharmacognosy textbooks.
• The pharmacological classification is most useful in clinical practice.
• Morphological classification is the simplest and most traditional.
• Unorganised drugs (gums, resins, oils) lack cell structure; organised drugs retain it.
• Chemotaxonomy has modern relevance in discovering new drugs from plants with similar chemistry.

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Which Question to Choose?

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Recommendation

• You want an easier question to write fluently without memorizing long lists of drug names
• You can elaborate each factor with 3–4 lines (guaranteed marks)

• You already studied drug examples (alkaloids, glycosides, etc.)
• You are comfortable making tables — tables = quick marks

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My Honest Suggestion

Choose Q2 (Cultivation) — it is more scoring because:

• The definition alone gives 1–2 marks
• Each factor (soil, climate, water, etc.) = 1 mark × 8 factors = 8 marks
• You cannot "go blank" mid-answer since factors are logical and relatable
• Less risk of mixing up examples compared to Q1

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Cultivation of Medicinal Plants — 10 Mark Answer

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Definition of Cultivation

Cultivation is preferred over wild collection because it gives standardized, reproducible, and high-quality crude drugs.

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Factors Influencing Cultivation of Medicinal Plants

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1. Soil Factors

• Soil type: Sandy, loamy, clayey, or alluvial. Most medicinal plants prefer well-drained loamy soil.
• Soil pH: Affects nutrient availability. Most plants grow best at pH 6–7 (slightly acidic to neutral).
• Soil nutrients: Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus (P), Potassium (K) — the NPK ratio must be balanced.
• Organic matter: Humus improves water retention and microbial activity.
• Soil texture & aeration: Roots need oxygen; compacted soils reduce growth.

Example: Digitalis prefers well-drained, slightly acidic soil. Liquorice grows well in deep, sandy loam.

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2. Climatic Factors

a) Temperature

• Each plant has an optimum temperature range for growth.
• Low temperature → slows metabolism, delays growth.
• High temperature → damages tissues, reduces alkaloid content.
• Example: Cinchona thrives at 16–21°C; Senna prefers hot, dry climates.

b) Rainfall and Humidity

• Adequate rainfall ensures water supply for photosynthesis.
• Excess rainfall → root rot, fungal infections.
• Low rainfall → drought stress, reduced yield.
• Example: Digitalis requires cool, moist climate; Aconite needs alpine conditions.

c) Light (Photoperiod)

• Plants are classified as:
  • Long-day plants (flower in long days)
  • Short-day plants (flower in short days)
  • Day-neutral plants
• Light intensity affects photosynthesis rate and hence active constituent production.
• Example: Belladonna needs full sunlight; some shade-loving plants grow under partial cover.

d) Wind

• Moderate wind helps in pollination and reduces humidity around leaves.
• Excess wind causes mechanical damage and water loss.

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3. Water / Irrigation

• Water is essential for photosynthesis, translocation, and nutrient uptake.
• Methods: drip irrigation, flood irrigation, sprinkler.
• Overwatering → anaerobic conditions, root rot.
• Under-watering → wilting, reduced yield.
• Quality of water matters — saline water can damage crops.

Example: Opium poppy requires controlled irrigation at specific growth stages.

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4. Altitude

• Altitude affects temperature, pressure, UV radiation, and humidity.
• Higher altitudes → lower temperature, higher UV → often increases alkaloid/secondary metabolite content (plant defense mechanism).
• Example:
  • Cinchona: cultivated at 1500–2500 m above sea level.
  • Aconite: grows in Himalayan altitudes (2500–4000 m).
  • Digitalis: best quality at higher altitudes in cool climates.

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5. Manures and Fertilizers

• Organic manures (compost, farmyard manure): improve soil structure and slow-release nutrients.
• Inorganic/Chemical fertilizers (NPK): quick-acting but may affect the nature of active constituents.
• Nitrogen → promotes vegetative growth and alkaloid synthesis.
• Phosphorus → promotes root development and flowering.
• Potassium → improves disease resistance and carbohydrate metabolism.

Important: Excess chemical fertilizers can alter or reduce the concentration of pharmacologically active constituents. Organic farming is preferred for medicinal plants.

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6. Harvesting Time and Method

• The stage of plant growth at harvest critically affects the active constituent content.
• Constituents vary with:
  • Time of day (volatile oils are highest in early morning)
  • Season (alkaloid content peaks at flowering stage)
  • Age of plant

Example:

• Digitalis leaves: harvested just before/during flowering (maximum glycoside content)
• Opium: latex collected by incising unripe capsules (morning)
• Cinchona bark: stripped when quinine content is highest

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7. Propagation Methods

Vegetative propagation maintains genetic consistency and ensures uniform drug quality.

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8. Pest and Disease Control

• Insects, fungi, bacteria, and viruses can reduce yield and alter drug composition.
• Control methods:
  • Biological control (natural predators)
  • Chemical pesticides (must be used cautiously — residues in drug)
  • Crop rotation — prevents soil-borne diseases
  • Integrated pest management (IPM)

Pesticide residues are a major quality concern in exported medicinal plants (WHO guidelines exist).

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9. Post-Harvest Factors

• Drying: Sun drying, shade drying, oven drying
• Storage: Temperature, humidity, light must be controlled
• Packaging: Prevents contamination and moisture uptake

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Summary Table

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Conclusion

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Sources of Drugs in Pharmacognosy — 6 Mark Answer

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Definition

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Sources of Drugs

1. Plant Source (Vegetable Source)

Plants produce drugs as primary metabolites (carbohydrates, proteins, oils) and secondary metabolites (alkaloids, glycosides, tannins, volatile oils).

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2. Animal Source

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3. Mineral Source (Inorganic Source)

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4. Marine Source

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5. Microbiological Source

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6. Synthetic / Semi-synthetic Source

• Synthetic analogues of natural compounds — e.g., Aspirin (synthesized from salicin of willow bark)
• Semi-synthetic: Modified natural compounds — e.g., Ampicillin (from natural penicillin core), Morphine → Heroin (semi-synthetic)

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Summary Table

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Conclusion

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Sources of Drugs — 5 Marks

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1. Plant Source

• Leaves — Digitalis (cardiotonic), Senna (purgative)
• Bark — Cinchona (quinine, antimalarial)
• Root — Rauwolfia (reserpine, antihypertensive)
• Latex — Opium (morphine, analgesic)

2. Animal Source

• Insulin — pancreas of pig/ox (diabetes)
• Heparin — intestinal mucosa of ox (anticoagulant)
• Cod liver oil — liver of cod fish (Vitamins A & D)

3. Mineral Source

• Kaolin — antidiarrheal
• Liquid paraffin — laxative
• Ferrous sulphate — iron deficiency anaemia

4. Marine Source

• Agar — from red algae (laxative, culture medium)
• Alginic acid — from brown algae (tablet binder)

5. Microbiological Source

• Penicillin — Penicillium notatum (antibiotic)
• Streptomycin — Streptomyces griseus (antibiotic for TB)

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Sources of Drugs — 5 Marks

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1. Plant Source (Vegetable Source)

• The most important source — contributes nearly 80% of crude drugs
• Drugs are obtained from different parts: leaves, bark, root, seed, fruit, flower, latex, rhizome
• Plants produce primary metabolites (carbohydrates, proteins, fixed oils) and secondary metabolites (alkaloids, glycosides, tannins, volatile oils)

• Leaves → Digitalis (digoxin — cardiotonic), Senna (sennosides — purgative)
• Bark → Cinchona (quinine — antimalarial), Cinnamon (carminative)
• Root → Rauwolfia (reserpine — antihypertensive), Ipecacuanha (emetine — amoebicide)
• Seed → Nux vomica (strychnine), Linseed (fixed oil — demulcent)
• Latex → Opium (morphine — analgesic, codeine — antitussive)
• Rhizome → Ginger (gingerol — carminative), Turmeric (curcumin — anti-inflammatory)
• Flower → Clove (eugenol — dental analgesic)

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2. Animal Source

• Drugs obtained from animal tissues, organs, glands, or secretions
• Mostly used as hormones, enzymes, or biological products

• Insulin → pancreas of pig/ox (diabetes mellitus)
• Heparin → intestinal mucosa of ox/pig (anticoagulant)
• Cod liver oil → liver of cod fish (source of Vitamins A & D)
• Lanolin (wool fat) → sheep's wool (ointment base)
• Beeswax → honeybee (ointment/cream base)
• Musk → musk deer gland (perfumery, stimulant)
• Gelatin → animal bones and skin (capsule shells, plasma expander)
• Thyroid extract → thyroid gland of ox (hypothyroidism)

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3. Mineral Source (Inorganic Source)

• Drugs obtained from earth minerals and inorganic compounds
• Used mainly as excipients, protective agents, or supplementary drugs

• Kaolin → hydrated aluminium silicate (antidiarrheal, dusting powder)
• Talc → magnesium silicate (dusting powder, lubricant in tablets)
• Sulphur → natural mineral (antifungal, scabicide)
• Liquid paraffin → mineral petroleum oil (laxative)
• Ferrous sulphate → iron mineral (iron deficiency anaemia)
• Zinc oxide → zinc ore (astringent, skin protectant)
• Magnesium sulphate → Epsom salt (purgative, antiepileptic IV)
• Boric acid → mineral compound (antiseptic, eye wash)

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4. Marine Source

• Drugs obtained from organisms found in the sea — algae, fish, sponges
• A growing source of new pharmacologically active compounds

• Agar → red algae Gelidium sp. (laxative, microbiological culture medium)
• Alginic acid → brown algae Laminaria sp. (tablet binder, antacid)
• Carrageenan → red seaweed (emulsifying and suspending agent)
• Cod liver oil → cod fish liver (Vitamins A & D)
• Squalene → shark liver oil (emollient, vaccine adjuvant)
• Protamine → fish sperm (used in protamine zinc insulin)

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5. Microbiological Source

• Drugs obtained from bacteria, fungi, and actinomycetes
• Major source of antibiotics and enzymes

• Penicillin → Penicillium notatum (broad-spectrum antibiotic)
• Streptomycin → Streptomyces griseus (antibiotic for tuberculosis)
• Chloramphenicol → Streptomyces venezuelae (antibiotic)
• Griseofulvin → Penicillium griseofulvum (antifungal)
• Nystatin → Streptomyces noursei (antifungal — Candida)
• Streptokinase → Streptococcus sp. (thrombolytic agent)

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6. Synthetic / Semi-Synthetic Source

• Synthetic drugs: entirely prepared in laboratory — e.g., Aspirin (from salicin of willow bark)
• Semi-synthetic: natural compound chemically modified — e.g., Ampicillin (from penicillin nucleus), Heroin (from morphine)

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Summary

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Sources of Drugs — 5 Marks

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1. Plant Source

• The most important source, contributing nearly 80% of crude drugs
• Drugs are obtained from leaves, bark, roots, seeds, fruits, latex, and rhizomes
• Plants produce active constituents like alkaloids, glycosides, tannins, and volatile oils

• Digitalis (leaves) → digoxin — cardiotonic
• Cinchona (bark) → quinine — antimalarial
• Rauwolfia (root) → reserpine — antihypertensive
• Opium (latex) → morphine — analgesic
• Ginger (rhizome) → gingerol — carminative

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2. Animal Source

• Drugs obtained from animal tissues, organs, glands, or secretions
• Mainly used as hormones, enzymes, and biological products

• Insulin → pancreas of pig/ox (diabetes)
• Heparin → intestinal mucosa of ox (anticoagulant)
• Cod liver oil → liver of cod fish (Vitamins A & D)
• Lanolin → sheep's wool (ointment base)
• Gelatin → animal bones and skin (capsule shells)

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3. Mineral Source

• Drugs obtained from earth minerals and inorganic compounds
• Mainly used as protective agents, excipients, or supplements

• Kaolin → antidiarrheal and dusting powder
• Talc → lubricant in tablets, dusting powder
• Ferrous sulphate → iron deficiency anaemia
• Liquid paraffin → laxative
• Zinc oxide → astringent and skin protectant

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4. Marine Source

• Drugs obtained from sea organisms such as algae and fish
• An important growing source of new pharmacological compounds

• Agar → red algae (laxative, culture medium)
• Alginic acid → brown algae (tablet binder, antacid)
• Squalene → shark liver oil (emollient, vaccine adjuvant)
• Carrageenan → red seaweed (emulsifying agent)

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5. Microbiological Source

• Drugs obtained from bacteria, fungi, and actinomycetes
• Major source of antibiotics and enzymes

• Penicillin → Penicillium notatum (antibiotic)
• Streptomycin → Streptomyces griseus (antibiotic for TB)
• Griseofulvin → Penicillium griseofulvum (antifungal)
• Nystatin → Streptomyces noursei (antifungal)

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6. Synthetic / Semi-Synthetic Source

• Synthetic — drugs prepared entirely in the laboratory, e.g., Aspirin
• Semi-synthetic — natural compound chemically modified, e.g., Ampicillin (from penicillin), Heroin (from morphine)

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Adulteration of Drugs of Natural Origin — 5 Marks

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Reasons for Adulteration

• Increase profit by reducing cost
• Scarcity of genuine drug
• Ignorance or carelessness during collection
• Deliberate fraud by the supplier

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Types of Adulteration

1. Substitution with Inferior Drugs

• Senna leaves substituted by Cassia auriculata leaves (similar appearance, less active)
• Cloves substituted by exhausted cloves (cloves from which oil has been removed)
• Digitalis leaves substituted by Verbascum thapsus (mullein leaves)

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2. Substitution with Entirely Different Substance

• Ginger replaced by exhausted ginger (spent ginger after oil extraction)
• Asafoetida replaced by garlic or resinous materials
• Saffron replaced by dried stigmas of other plants or colored vegetable fibers

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3. Admixture of Unwanted Matter (Sophistication)

• Sand, stones, or dirt added to crude drugs like roots and barks
• Stalks and stems added to leaf drugs (e.g., Senna, Digitalis)
• Heavy metals mixed into powders to increase weight
• Water added to liquid drugs to increase volume (e.g., milk added to volatile oils)

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4. Deteriorated Drugs

• Deteriorated due to moisture → mold-infected powders
• Old, expired drugs passed off as fresh
• Exhausted drugs (active constituents already extracted) sold as genuine
• Example: Exhausted cloves, spent nux vomica powder

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5. Artificially Manufactured Substitutes

• Artificial musk prepared from coal tar derivatives in place of natural musk
• Synthetic volatile oils used in place of natural essential oils
• Artificial indigo used instead of natural indigo

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6. Superficially Treated Drugs (Powdering/Coloring)

• Turmeric powder adulterated with lead chromate (yellow coloring agent)
• Chilli powder mixed with brick powder or sawdust
• Powdered drugs are more prone to adulteration as identification becomes difficult

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Detection of Adulteration

• Organoleptic methods — color, odor, taste, texture
• Microscopic examination — cell structure and tissue characters
• Chemical tests — specific color reactions, precipitation tests
• Physical constants — melting point, optical rotation, specific gravity
• Chromatography — TLC, HPLC to detect active constituents

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Harmful Effects of Adulteration

• Reduced therapeutic efficacy
• Toxic effects from harmful adulterants (e.g., lead chromate in turmeric)
• Economic loss to consumer
• Risk to patient health — especially dangerous with potent drugs

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Adulteration of Drugs of Natural Origin — 5 Marks

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Types of Adulteration

1. Substitution with Inferior Drugs

• Senna leaves → substituted by Cassia auriculata leaves
• Cloves → substituted by exhausted cloves (oil already removed)

2. Substitution with Entirely Different Substance

• Saffron → replaced by colored vegetable fibers
• Asafoetida → replaced by garlic or cheap resins

3. Admixture of Foreign Matter

• Sand, stones, or stalks mixed into crude drugs
• Water added to liquid drugs and volatile oils

4. Deteriorated Drugs

• Exhausted cloves or spent ginger (active constituent already extracted)
• Mold-infected or improperly stored powders

5. Artificially Manufactured Substitutes

• Artificial musk (coal tar) instead of natural musk
• Synthetic essential oils instead of natural volatile oils

6. Powdering and Coloring

• Turmeric powder mixed with lead chromate (yellow coloring)
• Chilli powder mixed with brick powder or sawdust

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Detection Methods

• Organoleptic — color, odor, taste
• Microscopic — tissue and cell examination
• Chemical tests — specific color reactions
• Chromatography — TLC, HPLC

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