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PART II - MAJOR EXPERIMENT

Q. 2a: Limit Test for Chlorides (35 Marks)

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LIMIT TEST FOR CHLORIDES

Aim

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Principle

NaCl + AgNO₃ → AgCl↓ (white turbidity) + NaNO₃

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Requirements

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Preparation of Standard Chloride Solution (Stock)

• Dissolve 0.824 g of Sodium Chloride (NaCl, previously dried at 110°C) in distilled water and make up to 1000 mL (Stock Solution = 500 ppm Cl⁻).
• Dilute 10 mL of this to 1000 mL → Standard Chloride Solution = 5 ppm (1 mL = 5 μg Cl⁻).

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Procedure

• Take the prescribed amount of sample in a Nessler cylinder.
• Add distilled water to make 40 mL.
• Add 10 mL of dilute nitric acid (HNO₃).
• Mix well.

• Pipette the volume of standard chloride solution as specified (e.g., 1 mL = 5 μg Cl⁻).
• Add distilled water to make 40 mL.
• Add 10 mL of dilute nitric acid (HNO₃).
• Mix well.

• To both cylinders, add 1 mL of 2% silver nitrate solution.
• Add 0.1 mL of dilute nitric acid.
• Make up to 50 mL with distilled water in both cylinders.
• Mix and allow to stand for 5 minutes, protected from light.

• View the cylinders longitudinally against a black background, in diffused light.
• Compare the turbidity of the test solution with that of the standard.

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Observation Table

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Result

The sample COMPLIES / DOES NOT COMPLY with the IP limit test for Chlorides.

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Limit (as per IP)

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Precautions

1. Nessler cylinders used must be matched (identical diameter and flat bottom).
2. The test must be carried out under identical conditions for both cylinders simultaneously.
3. Protect from direct light after adding AgNO₃ (AgCl is photosensitive).
4. Use dilute HNO₃ only (not dilute HCl or H₂SO₄ - they interfere).
5. Distilled water used must be chloride-free.
6. Both cylinders should be viewed from the top against a black background.

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PART II - MINOR EXPERIMENT

Q. 2b - BATCH A: Identification of Unknown Drug Sample (Paracetamol / Ibuprofen)

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Aim

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Principle

• Paracetamol contains a phenolic -OH group and an amide (-NHCOCH₃) group
• Ibuprofen contains a carboxylic acid (-COOH) group and an isobutyl group

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Tests Performed

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TEST 1 - Ferric Chloride Test (for Phenolic group)

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TEST 2 - Hydrolysis followed by Diazo Coupling Test

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TEST 3 - Sodium Bicarbonate (Effervescence) Test (for -COOH group)

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TEST 4 - Melting Point (Physical Test)

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Observation Summary Table

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Result

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Q. 2b - BATCH B: Assay of Aspirin by Acid-Base Titration Method

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Aim

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Principle

C₉H₈O₄ + 2 NaOH → C₇H₅O₃Na (Sodium Salicylate) + CH₃COONa + H₂O

2 NaOH + H₂SO₄ → Na₂SO₄ + 2 H₂O

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Requirements

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Procedure

• Weigh accurately about 0.5 g of Aspirin sample. Record weight as W g.

• Transfer to a 250 mL conical flask.
• Add exactly 50 mL of 0.5 M NaOH using a pipette.

• Boil gently on water bath for 15 minutes (to complete hydrolysis of ester bond).
• Cool to room temperature.

• Add 2-3 drops of phenolphthalein indicator (pink colour appears).
• Titrate excess NaOH with 0.25 M H₂SO₄ from the burette.
• End point: Pink colour just disappears (colourless).
• Note the volume of H₂SO₄ consumed = V mL.

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Calculation

• Volume of NaOH taken = 50 mL of 0.5 M
• Volume of H₂SO₄ used in back titration = V mL of 0.25 M

= 50 × 0.5 = 25 mmol

= V × 0.25 × 2 = 0.5V mmol

= 25 - 0.5V mmol

Moles of Aspirin = (25 - 0.5V) / 2 mmol

= [(25 - 0.5V) / 2] × 0.18016 g

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Observation Table

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Result

The sample COMPLIES / DOES NOT COMPLY with IP standards.

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Precautions

1. Boiling must be complete to ensure total hydrolysis of Aspirin.
2. Cool the solution completely before back-titration.
3. All glassware must be clean and dry.
4. Standardise both NaOH and H₂SO₄ before use.
5. Take concordant readings (within 0.1 mL).
6. End point should be sharp - faint pink to colourless.

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Q. 2b - BATCH C: Storage Conditions and Uses of Atropine Sulphate and Propranolol

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ATROPINE SULPHATE

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Category

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Mechanism of Action

• Increased heart rate (tachycardia)
• Decreased secretions (dry mouth, reduced sweating)
• Mydriasis (pupil dilation)
• Relaxation of smooth muscles

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Uses of Atropine Sulphate

1. Pre-anaesthetic medication - to reduce secretions during surgery
2. Antidote for organophosphate poisoning (blocks excessive acetylcholine effects)
3. Treatment of bradycardia (slow heart rate)
4. Ophthalmology - pupil dilation (mydriatic) for eye examination and uveitis
5. Antispasmodic - in peptic ulcer, renal colic, intestinal colic
6. Asthma - as bronchodilator (older use)
7. Motion sickness (scopolamine related use)

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Storage Conditions of Atropine Sulphate

1. Store in a well-closed container, protected from light
2. Store in a cool, dry place (below 25°C)
3. Protect from moisture (hygroscopic in nature)
4. Schedule H drug - store separately, under lock and key
5. Keep away from children
6. Avoid exposure to heat and direct sunlight
7. Aqueous solutions should be freshly prepared and sterilised by autoclaving

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PROPRANOLOL

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Category

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Mechanism of Action

• Decreased heart rate (negative chronotropy)
• Decreased force of contraction (negative inotropy)
• Decreased cardiac output
• Reduction in blood pressure

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Uses of Propranolol

1. Hypertension - reduces blood pressure
2. Angina pectoris - reduces cardiac oxygen demand
3. Cardiac arrhythmias - controls atrial fibrillation, SVT, ventricular arrhythmias
4. Myocardial infarction - reduces mortality post-MI
5. Hyperthyroidism - controls tachycardia and tremor (thyrotoxicosis)
6. Migraine prophylaxis
7. Anxiety and tremors (stage fright, essential tremor)
8. Phaeochromocytoma (with alpha-blockers)
9. Portal hypertension - reduces risk of bleeding from oesophageal varices

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Storage Conditions of Propranolol

1. Store in a well-closed, light-resistant container
2. Store below 25°C in a cool, dry place
3. Protect from moisture and heat
4. Schedule H drug - prescription only, kept under lock and key
5. Keep away from children
6. Do not store in bathroom (humid conditions degrade the drug)
7. Tablets should be stored at controlled room temperature (15-30°C)

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Comparison Table

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All answers written above are formatted as per standard D.Pharm practical examination format including aim, principle, procedure, observation table, calculation (where applicable), result, and precautions.

PART I - SYNOPSIS (10 Marks)

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Q. 1a) What are sulfonamides? Give two examples. (2 Marks)

1. Sulfamethoxazole
2. Sulfadiazine

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Q. 1b) Define cathartics with two examples. (2 Marks)

1. Castor oil
2. Magnesium sulphate (Epsom salt)

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Q. 1c) What are dental products? Give examples. (2 Marks)

1. Sodium fluoride (toothpaste/mouthwash)
2. Zinc chloride (antiseptic mouthwash)

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Q. 1d) Example of antihypertensive drug. (2 Marks)

1. Amlodipine
2. Enalapril

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Q. 1e) What are beta-blockers? Give two examples. (2 Marks)

1. Propranolol
2. Atenolol

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PHARMACOGNOSY PRACTICAL - FINAL EXAMINATION MAY 2026

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PART I - SYNOPSIS (10 Marks)

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Q. 1a) What is the biological source of Clove? (2 Marks)

• Biological Source: Dried unexpanded flower buds of Syzygium aromaticum Linn.
• Family: Myrtaceae

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Q. 1b) What is a bitter tonic? (2 Marks)

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Q. 1c) Chemical constituents and uses of Ispaghula (2 Marks)

• Contains mucilage (10-30%) composed of arabinoxylan
• Xylose, arabinose, rhamnose, galacturonic acid

1. Used as a bulk laxative in constipation
2. Used in diarrhoea (absorbs excess water)

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Q. 1d) Uses of Agarose and Agaropectin (2 Marks)

• Used in gel electrophoresis for separation of DNA/RNA
• Used as culture medium in microbiology

• Used as a laxative
• Used in pharmaceutical preparations as a gelling/thickening agent

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Q. 1e) Uses and Chemical Constituents of Cinchona (2 Marks)

• Alkaloids: Quinine, Quinidine, Cinchonine, Cinchonidine

1. Quinine - antimalarial drug
2. Quinidine - antiarrhythmic drug
3. Used as bitter tonic to improve appetite

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PART II - MAJOR EXPERIMENT (35 Marks)

Q. 2a) Transverse Section of Coriander Fruit

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Aim

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Biological Source

• Drug: Coriander
• Biological Source: Dried ripe fruits of Coriandrum sativum Linn.
• Family: Apiaceae (Umbelliferae)

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Materials Required

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Procedure

• Soak the dried coriander fruit in water overnight to soften it for sectioning.

• Hold the fruit between thumb and index finger (or in elderberry pith).
• Using a sharp razor blade, cut thin transverse sections with a smooth, quick stroke.
• Collect multiple sections in a watch glass containing water.
• Select the thinnest, most transparent sections.

• Place the thin section on a glass slide.
• Add 1-2 drops of Safranin stain; allow to stain for 2-3 minutes.
• Wash off excess stain with water.
• Add a drop of glycerine and place a coverslip carefully (avoid air bubbles).

• Observe first under low power (10×), then high power (45×) objective.
• Identify the anatomical layers and draw a neat labelled diagram.

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Anatomical Characters Observed

• Outermost single layer of rectangular parenchymatous cells
• Covered with thick cuticle
• Contains stomata and trichomes

• 3-5 layers of thin-walled parenchymatous cells
• Contains vittae (oil ducts/channels) - 6 in number (1 on each commissure and 4 on dorsal surface)
• Vascular bundles present
• Fibrous layers in the inner mesocarp

• Single layer of parenchymatous cells
• Fused with testa of seed

• Large cells with aleurone grains, fixed oil, and rosette crystals of calcium oxalate

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Diagram

        T.S. of Coriander Fruit

    ┌─────────────────────────────┐
    │ Epicarp (cuticle + 1 layer) │
    ├─────────────────────────────┤
    │    Mesocarp (parenchyma)    │
    │   [Vittae/Oil ducts here]   │
    │   [Vascular bundles here]   │
    ├─────────────────────────────┤
    │         Endocarp            │
    ├─────────────────────────────┤
    │    Testa of Seed            │
    ├─────────────────────────────┤
    │    Endosperm (aleurone +    │
    │    fixed oil + Ca oxalate)  │
    └─────────────────────────────┘

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Observation Table

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Result

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PART II - MINOR EXPERIMENT (25 Marks)

Q. 2b - BATCH A: Physical and Chemical Tests for Castor Oil

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Aim

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Biological Source

• Drug: Castor Oil
• Biological Source: Fixed oil obtained from seeds of Ricinus communis Linn.
• Family: Euphorbiaceae
• Part used: Seeds (by cold expression)

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Physical Tests

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1. Description (Organoleptic Characters)

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2. Specific Gravity

• Take a clean, dry specific gravity bottle.
• Weigh empty (W₁), filled with water (W₂), filled with oil (W₃).

Specific Gravity = (W₃ - W₁) / (W₂ - W₁)

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3. Refractive Index

• Using Abbe's refractometer at 40°C.

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4. Viscosity

• Castor oil is the most viscous of all fixed oils due to high ricinolein content.
• Observed by comparing flow with water.

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Chemical Tests

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1. Saponification Value

• Weigh accurately ~2 g of castor oil.
• Add 25 mL of 0.5 N alcoholic KOH.
• Reflux for 1 hour.
• Cool, add phenolphthalein indicator.
• Titrate excess KOH with 0.5 N HCl.

Saponification Value = [25 - V(HCl)] × 28.05 / W

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2. Acid Value

• Dissolve 2 g oil in neutral alcohol.
• Add phenolphthalein indicator.
• Titrate with 0.1 N KOH until pink colour persists.

Acid Value = (V × 5.61) / W

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3. Iodine Value

• Dissolve 0.25 g oil in chloroform.
• Add 25 mL of Wij's solution (ICl); keep in dark for 30 min.
• Add KI and titrate with 0.1 N Na₂S₂O₃ using starch indicator.

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4. Specific Chemical Test - Hydroxyl Value

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5. Solubility Test

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Observation Summary Table

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Result

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Q. 2b - BATCH B: Physical and Chemical Tests for Acacia Gum

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Aim

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Biological Source

• Drug: Acacia / Gum Acacia / Gum Arabic
• Biological Source: Dried gummy exudate from stems and branches of Acacia senegal Willd. (and other species)
• Family: Leguminosae (Fabaceae)

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Physical Tests

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1. Organoleptic Characters

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2. Solubility Test

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3. Swelling / Mucilage Formation Test

• Dissolve 1 g of acacia in 10 mL of water.
• Observation: Forms a clear, sticky, viscous mucilage.

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4. Ash Value

• Take 2 g of acacia in a silica crucible.
• Incinerate at 550°C in a muffle furnace until white ash is obtained.

% Ash = (Weight of ash / Weight of sample) × 100

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Chemical Tests

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1. Ruthenium Red Test (for acidic polysaccharide/mucilage)

• Prepare aqueous solution of acacia.
• Add 1-2 drops of Ruthenium Red solution.
• Observation: Pink/Red colour - confirms presence of acidic mucilage.

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2. Lead Acetate Test

• To 1 mL of 5% acacia solution, add excess Lead Acetate solution.
• Observation: White precipitate formed (confirms presence of acidic gum with uronic acid groups).

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3. Fehling's Solution Test (for reducing sugars after hydrolysis)

• Hydrolyse 0.5 g acacia with dilute HCl on a water bath for 15 min.
• Neutralise with NaOH.
• Add Fehling's A and B solution and heat.
• Observation: Brick-red precipitate of Cu₂O formed (confirms arabinose, galactose sugars after hydrolysis).

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4. Iodine Test

• Add 1-2 drops of iodine solution to acacia mucilage.
• Observation: No blue colour - confirms absence of starch.
• Acacia gives no colour change or yellowish brown (negative starch test).

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5. Borax Test

• Prepare 2% acacia mucilage.
• Add Borax (Sodium tetraborate) solution.
• Shake gently.
• Observation: A stiff, jelly-like consistency forms - confirms gum acacia (due to interaction with borate ions).

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6. Moisture Content (Loss on Drying)

• Weigh 1 g acacia.
• Dry at 105°C for 4 hours.
• Result: Loss on drying = Not more than 15.0% (IP standard)

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Observation Summary Table

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Result

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All answers are written in standard D.Pharm Pharmacognosy Practical examination format with Aim, Biological Source, Materials, Procedure, Observations, and Result as required.

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HAP PRACTICAL - FINAL EXAMINATION MAY 2026

Course: Human Anatomy & Physiology (ER20-14P) | D. Pharm 1st Year

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PART I - SYNOPSIS (10 Marks)

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Q. 1a) Name the instrument used for measuring blood pressure by auscultatory method. (2 Marks)

• The sphygmomanometer consists of an inflatable cuff, a manometer (mercury or aneroid), and a bulb with valve.
• The stethoscope is used to listen to Korotkoff sounds over the brachial artery.

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Q. 1b) What is tissue? Write its types. (2 Marks)

1. Epithelial tissue - covers body surfaces, lines cavities
2. Connective tissue - supports and connects structures (bone, blood, cartilage)
3. Muscular tissue - responsible for movement (skeletal, smooth, cardiac)
4. Nervous tissue - transmits nerve impulses (neurons and neuroglia)

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Q. 1c) What is the function of skeletal muscle? (2 Marks)

1. Body movement - produces movements of limbs, trunk, and head by acting on bones through tendons
2. Maintenance of posture - maintains body posture and position against gravity
3. Respiration - muscles of respiration (diaphragm, intercostals) assist in breathing
4. Heat production - generates body heat through muscle contractions (thermogenesis)

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Q. 1d) What is the nervous system? (2 Marks)

1. Central Nervous System (CNS) - Brain and Spinal cord
2. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) - Cranial nerves and Spinal nerves
   • Somatic nervous system (voluntary)
   • Autonomic nervous system (involuntary) - Sympathetic and Parasympathetic

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Q. 1e) Define Systolic Blood Pressure and Diastolic Blood Pressure. (2 Marks)

• Normal value: 120 mmHg

• Normal value: 80 mmHg

Normal blood pressure = 120/80 mmHg

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PART II - MAJOR EXPERIMENT (35 Marks)

Q. 2a) Determination of Systolic and Diastolic Blood Pressure by Palpatory and Auscultatory Method

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Aim

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Definition

• Normal BP = 120/80 mmHg
• Systolic BP = Pressure during ventricular contraction
• Diastolic BP = Pressure during ventricular relaxation
• Pulse Pressure = SBP - DBP = 40 mmHg
• Mean Arterial Pressure = DBP + 1/3 Pulse Pressure = 93 mmHg

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Apparatus Required

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Subject

• Healthy adult volunteer
• Subject should rest for 5-10 minutes before recording
• No smoking or exercise 30 minutes before the test

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METHOD 1 - PALPATORY METHOD

Principle

Procedure

Observation (Palpatory)

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METHOD 2 - AUSCULTATORY METHOD

Principle

Procedure

• Note reading when first tapping sound is heard = Systolic BP
• Note reading when sounds completely disappear = Diastolic BP

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Observation Table (Auscultatory Method)

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Classification of Blood Pressure (JNC / Standard)

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Result

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Precautions

1. Subject should rest for at least 5-10 minutes before measurement.
2. Cuff should be applied snugly - not too tight or loose.
3. The arm should be at the level of the heart.
4. Release cuff pressure slowly (2-3 mmHg/sec) for accurate reading.
5. Do not talk during the recording.
6. Repeat the measurement 2-3 times and take average.
7. Do not smoke or exercise 30 minutes before the test.
8. Empty the bladder before recording (full bladder increases BP).

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PART II - MINOR EXPERIMENT (25 Marks)

Q. 2b - BATCH A: Recording of Blood Pressure in Various Postures, Different Arms, Before and After Exertion

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Aim

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Apparatus

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Procedure

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1. Blood Pressure in Various Postures

• BP is slightly higher in standing than lying due to increased sympathetic activity (orthostatic response).
• A drop of >20 mmHg systolic on standing = Postural/Orthostatic Hypotension.

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2. Blood Pressure in Different Arms

• Normally a difference of 5-10 mmHg between both arms is acceptable.
• A difference of >10-15 mmHg may indicate arterial stenosis on the side with lower BP.

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3. Blood Pressure Before and After Exertion

• Record resting BP first (after 5 min rest).
• Ask the subject to perform step test / brisk walking / 20 squats for 2 minutes.
• Immediately record BP after exertion.
• Record again after 5 minutes of rest (recovery).

• During exercise, Systolic BP rises significantly (due to increased cardiac output).
• Diastolic BP may slightly decrease, remain same, or mildly increase.
• Recovery: In healthy individuals, BP returns to normal within 3-5 minutes.
• Slow recovery may indicate cardiovascular inefficiency.

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Overall Result

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Q. 2b - BATCH B: Measurement of Height, Weight, and BMI

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Aim

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Apparatus Required

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MEASUREMENT 1 - HEIGHT

1. Ask the subject to remove footwear and stand upright on a flat surface.
2. The subject should stand with heels together, back straight, head in Frankfurt plane (eyes and ears in the same horizontal plane).
3. Heels, buttocks, shoulder blades, and back of head should touch the wall/stadiometer.
4. Place the headboard horizontally on top of the head.
5. Read the height in centimetres.

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MEASUREMENT 2 - WEIGHT

1. Ensure weighing scale is calibrated (reads zero before use).
2. Ask the subject to remove heavy clothing and footwear.
3. Subject stands still in the centre of the weighing scale.
4. Read the weight in kilograms.

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MEASUREMENT 3 - BMI (Body Mass Index)

• Height = _______ cm = _______ m
• Weight = _______ kg

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BMI Classification (WHO Standard)

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Observation Summary Table

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Result

• Height of the subject = _______ cm
• Weight of the subject = _______ kg
• BMI of the subject = _______ kg/m²

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Precautions

1. Height should be measured without footwear.
2. Weight should be measured without heavy clothing, preferably in the morning on an empty stomach.
3. The weighing scale should be calibrated before use.
4. For BMI, height must be converted from cm to metres.
5. Measurements should be taken at least twice and average recorded.

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All answers are written in standard D.Pharm HAP Practical examination format with Aim, Principle/Definition, Apparatus, Procedure, Observation Table, Classification, Result, and Precautions.