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I now have all the questions. Let me provide comprehensive answers to all the calculation-based and theory questions found in the physiology practical charts.
Physiology Practical Charts - Complete Answers
CHART 1 - Dyspneic Index (Page 3)
Q. Calculate the Dyspneic Index from:
- Resting pulmonary ventilation = 6 L/min
- Maximum voluntary ventilation (MVV) = 100 L/min
Calculation:
Dyspneic Index = (Resting Pulmonary Ventilation / MVV) × 100 = (6 / 100) × 100 = 6% Normal dyspneic index = 3-6%. This value is normal.
Answers to theory questions:
1. Define Dyspneic Index:
Dyspneic index is the ratio of resting pulmonary ventilation to maximum voluntary ventilation, expressed as a percentage. It indicates the breathing reserve of a person.
- Formula: (Resting ventilation / MVV) × 100
- Normal value: 3-6%
- In dyspneic patients, resting ventilation increases and/or MVV decreases, so the index rises above 6%.
2. Define Maximum Voluntary Ventilation (MVV):
MVV (also called Maximum Breathing Capacity) is the maximum volume of air that can be breathed in and out per minute by voluntary effort. It is measured by asking the subject to breathe as fast and as deeply as possible for 15 seconds, and the result is extrapolated to 1 minute.
- Normal value: 100-170 L/min (average ~125 L/min in males)
- Reduced in obstructive and restrictive lung diseases
3. What is dyspnea?
Dyspnea is the subjective sensation of difficulty in breathing or breathlessness. It is an unpleasant awareness of the act of breathing. It occurs when ventilatory demand exceeds ventilatory capacity.
4. Examples of obstructive and restrictive lung disorders:
| Obstructive | Restrictive |
|---|---|
| Bronchial asthma | Pulmonary fibrosis |
| COPD (emphysema, chronic bronchitis) | Silicosis / pneumoconiosis |
| Bronchiectasis | Pleural effusion |
| Cystic fibrosis | Kyphoscoliosis |
| Foreign body obstruction | Sarcoidosis |
CHART 2 - MCH and MCV (Pages 4 & 7)
Q. Determine MCH and MCV from:
- Hb = 14.5 g/dL
- RBC count = 4.8 million/mm³
- PCV = 42%
Calculations:
MCV (Mean Corpuscular Volume):
MCV = PCV (%) / RBC count (millions/mm³) × 10 MCV = 42 / 4.8 × 10 = 87.5 fL (Normal: 80-100 fL) → Normocytic
MCH (Mean Corpuscular Hemoglobin):
MCH = Hb (g/dL) / RBC count (millions/mm³) × 10 MCH = 14.5 / 4.8 × 10 = 30.2 pg (Normal: 27-33 pg) → Normochromic
(MCHC = Hb / PCV × 100 = 14.5 / 42 × 100 = 34.5 g/dL - also normal)
Answers to theory questions:
1. Different Red Cell Indices:
- MCV (Mean Corpuscular Volume) - size of RBC, normal 80-100 fL
- MCH (Mean Corpuscular Hemoglobin) - Hb content per RBC, normal 27-33 pg
- MCHC (Mean Corpuscular Hemoglobin Concentration) - Hb concentration per unit volume of RBC, normal 32-36 g/dL
- Color Index (CI) - ratio of Hb% to RBC%, normal ≈ 1
2. Which blood index is most reliable and why?
MCHC is the most reliable index because:
- It does not depend on RBC count (which is prone to measurement errors)
- It is calculated from PCV and Hb, both of which can be measured accurately
- It is not affected by anisocytosis (variation in cell size)
3. Why MCHC cannot exceed 38%?
Hemoglobin is the dominant protein in RBCs. The maximum concentration of Hb that can be dissolved/packed inside the RBC without causing it to crystallize is about 38 g/dL. Beyond this concentration, hemoglobin would precipitate/crystallize inside the cell, causing cell destruction. Thus, MCHC is physiologically limited to ≤38 g/dL.
4. Classify anemia based on blood indices:
| Type | MCV | MCH | MCHC | Example |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Normocytic normochromic | Normal (80-100 fL) | Normal | Normal | Aplastic anemia, acute blood loss |
| Microcytic hypochromic | Low (<80 fL) | Low | Low | Iron deficiency anemia, thalassemia |
| Macrocytic normochromic | High (>100 fL) | High | Normal | B12/folate deficiency (megaloblastic anemia) |
| Macrocytic hyperchromic | High | High | High | Hereditary spherocytosis (rarely) |
CHART 3 - TmG (Page 25)
Q. Calculate TmG (Tubular Maximum for Glucose) from:
- Plasma glucose = 300 mg/dL
- GFR = 100 mL/min
- Glucose in urine = 10 mg/mL
- Urine formation rate = 1 mL/min
Calculations:
Filtered glucose = Plasma conc × GFR = 3 mg/mL × 100 mL/min = 300 mg/min Excreted glucose = Urine conc × Urine rate = 10 mg/mL × 1 mL/min = 10 mg/min TmG = Filtered - Excreted = 300 - 10 = 290 mg/min (Normal TmG = 320 mg/min in males, 260 mg/min in females)
Answers to theory questions:
1. Define TmG:
Tubular Maximum for Glucose (TmG) is the maximum rate at which the renal tubules can reabsorb glucose per minute. It represents the transport maximum (Tm) for glucose carriers (SGLT-2 mainly) in the proximal tubule. Normal value: ~320 mg/min in males, ~260 mg/min in females.
2. Significance of TmG in diabetes mellitus:
In uncontrolled diabetes mellitus, plasma glucose is markedly elevated (e.g., 300+ mg/dL), causing the filtered glucose load to exceed TmG. The excess glucose that cannot be reabsorbed spills into urine = glycosuria. Glycosuria causes osmotic diuresis (polyuria), leading to dehydration and polydipsia. TmG measurement helps assess renal tubular capacity.
3. What is the renal threshold splay?
Ideally, glycosuria should begin at a precise plasma glucose level (renal threshold ≈180 mg/dL), but in practice, some nephrons begin excreting glucose before others due to heterogeneity in TmG among nephrons. This spread of onset around the theoretical threshold is called splay. It means glycosuria begins at a lower plasma glucose than expected for a perfect TmG.
4. Difference between renal threshold and tubular maximum:
| Renal Threshold | Tubular Maximum (Tm) |
|---|---|
| The plasma concentration at which a substance first appears in urine | The maximum rate of tubular reabsorption/secretion per minute |
| For glucose = ~180 mg/dL | For glucose = ~320 mg/min |
| Depends on both plasma concentration and GFR | Depends on number and capacity of tubular carriers |
CHART 4 - Net Effective Filtration Pressure & GFR (Page 47)
Q. Calculate Net Effective Filtration Pressure (NEFP) from:
- Hydrostatic pressure in glomerulus (PGC) = 60 mmHg
- Hydrostatic pressure in Bowman's capsule (PBS) = 15 mmHg
- Oncotic pressure in glomerulus (πGC) = 30 mmHg
- Oncotic pressure in filtrate (πBS) = 0 mmHg
Calculation:
NEFP = (PGC - PBS) - (πGC - πBS) NEFP = (60 - 15) - (30 - 0) NEFP = 45 - 30 = +15 mmHg (net filtration outward → filtration occurs)
Answers to theory questions:
1. Define GFR:
Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR) is the volume of plasma filtered by the glomeruli per unit time. Normal value: 125 mL/min (180 L/day). It is the best clinical indicator of renal function.
2. Define ultrafiltration:
Ultrafiltration is the filtration of plasma across the glomerular filtration membrane under hydrostatic pressure. It is called "ultra" because it filters all small molecules (water, electrolytes, glucose, urea) but retains large plasma proteins and blood cells. The filtrate is protein-free and cell-free plasma.
3. Factors affecting GFR:
- Glomerular capillary hydrostatic pressure (↑ increases GFR)
- Plasma oncotic pressure (↑ decreases GFR - e.g., dehydration)
- Bowman's capsule pressure (↑ decreases GFR - e.g., ureteral obstruction)
- Filtration coefficient (Kf) - surface area and permeability of filtration membrane
- Renal blood flow (autoregulation between MAP 80-180 mmHg)
- Afferent/efferent arteriolar tone (afferent dilation or efferent constriction raises GFR)
4. Functions of podocytes:
- Podocytes (visceral epithelial cells) form the outer layer of the glomerular filtration membrane
- Their foot processes interdigitate and form filtration slits bridged by the slit diaphragm (nephrin protein)
- They act as a size and charge barrier - negatively charged slit diaphragm repels albumin
- Maintain the integrity of the glomerular filtration barrier
- Damage to podocytes → nephrotic syndrome (massive proteinuria)
CHART 5 - GFR by Inulin Clearance (Page 91)
Q. Calculate GFR from:
- Inulin in plasma (P) = 0.24 mg/mL
- Inulin in urine (U) = 34 mg/mL
- Urine flow rate (V) = 0.9 mL/min
Calculation:
GFR (Clearance of Inulin) = U × V / P GFR = 34 × 0.9 / 0.24 GFR = 30.6 / 0.24 = 127.5 mL/min ≈ Normal (125 mL/min)
Answers to theory questions:
1. Define GFR: (see above)
2. Factors affecting GFR: (see above)
3. What is filtration fraction?
Filtration Fraction (FF) = GFR / Renal Plasma Flow (RPF)
- Normal RPF = ~650 mL/min; Normal GFR = ~125 mL/min
- FF = 125/650 = ~0.19 (19%)
- It means ~19% of renal plasma is filtered at the glomerulus per pass.
- Increased in: renal artery stenosis, heart failure; Decreased in: acute tubular necrosis
4. What is renal clearance?
Renal clearance of a substance is the volume of plasma completely cleared of that substance per minute by the kidneys.
Clearance = U × V / P (mL/min)
- Inulin clearance = GFR (125 mL/min) - only filtered, not reabsorbed/secreted
- PAH clearance = RPF (~650 mL/min) - filtered + completely secreted
- Glucose clearance = 0 (completely reabsorbed)
CHART 6 - Lung Compliance (Page 65)
Q. Calculate lung compliance from:
- Change in lung volume = 1 L
- Pressure change = 5 cm H₂O
Calculation:
Compliance = ΔVolume / ΔPressure C = 1000 mL / 5 cm H₂O = 200 mL/cm H₂O = 0.2 L/cm H₂O Normal lung compliance = 0.2 L/cm H₂O ✓
Answers to theory questions:
1. Define lung compliance:
Lung compliance is the change in lung volume per unit change in transmural (transpulmonary) pressure. It measures the distensibility (ease of expansion) of the lungs.
- Formula: C = ΔV / ΔP
- Normal: 0.2 L/cm H₂O (200 mL/cm H₂O)
2. Conditions in which lungs are more compliant:
- Emphysema (destruction of elastic tissue → highly compliant but reduced elastic recoil)
- Old age (loss of elastin)
- Surfactant deficiency recovery phase (paradoxically, with surfactant, less force needed)
3. Types of lung compliance:
- Static compliance: measured when airflow is zero; reflects true elastic properties
- Dynamic compliance: measured during breathing; affected by both elastic recoil and airway resistance
- Specific compliance: compliance corrected for lung volume (C/FRC); used to compare patients
4. Factors influencing lung compliance:
- Elastic tissue (elastin and collagen fibers) - ↓ in fibrosis, ↑ in emphysema
- Pulmonary surfactant - reduces surface tension; ↓ surfactant → ↓ compliance (RDS of newborn)
- Lung volume - compliance is highest at mid-range lung volumes
- Pulmonary congestion/edema - reduces compliance
- Age - compliance increases with age (loss of elastin)
- Body posture - supine position slightly reduces compliance
CHART 7 - RV and FRC (Page 70)
Q. Calculate RV and FRC from:
- IRV = 3 L
- ERV = 1.8 L
- TV = 0.5 L
- TLC = 6 L
Calculations:
VC = IRV + TV + ERV = 3 + 0.5 + 1.8 = 5.3 L RV = TLC - VC = 6 - 5.3 = 0.7 L (Normal: ~1.2 L) FRC = ERV + RV = 1.8 + 0.7 = 2.5 L (Normal: ~2.3 L) ✓
Answers to theory questions:
1. Define RV:
Residual Volume (RV) is the volume of air remaining in the lungs after a maximum forced expiration. It cannot be expelled even by the most forceful expiration. Normal value: ~1.2 L.
2. Define FRC:
Functional Residual Capacity (FRC) is the volume of air remaining in the lungs at the end of a normal quiet expiration. FRC = ERV + RV. Normal value: ~2.3 L (male).
3. Importance of RV:
- Prevents alveolar collapse between breaths
- Ensures continuous gas exchange even during expiration
- Dilutes inspired air so that O₂ and CO₂ changes in alveoli are gradual (prevents abrupt swings)
- Acts as a buffer - prevents large fluctuations in alveolar gas composition
4. How to estimate RV and FRC:
Since RV cannot be measured by spirometry (cannot be expired), special methods are used:
- Helium dilution method (closed circuit): Helium is diluted by the FRC; final concentration is used to calculate FRC
- Nitrogen washout method: Subject breathes 100% O₂; N₂ washed out and collected; volume calculated from N₂ amount
- Body plethysmography (most accurate): Uses Boyle's law; measures total thoracic gas volume
- RV = FRC - ERV (once FRC is known)
CHART 8 - Absolute Eosinophil Count (Pages 82 & 113)
Q. Calculate Absolute Eosinophil Count (AEC) from:
- TLC = 6000/mm³
- DLC: Neutrophils 55%, Eosinophils 15%, Monocytes 5%, Basophils 0%, Lymphocytes 25%
Calculation:
AEC = TLC × Eosinophil%/100 AEC = 6000 × 15/100 = 900/mm³ Normal AEC = 40-440/mm³ → This is elevated (eosinophilia)
Answers to theory questions:
1. Clinical significance of AEC:
AEC is more meaningful than % eosinophils because it is independent of other cell changes. Used to:
- Diagnose eosinophilia (AEC > 440-500/mm³)
- Monitor response to corticosteroid therapy (steroids suppress eosinophils)
- Diurnal variation: lowest at 10 AM (peak cortisol), highest at midnight
2. Normal range of AEC: 40-440/mm³ (some sources say 100-400/mm³)
3. Conditions altering eosinophil count:
- Eosinophilia (↑): Allergic disorders (asthma, hay fever), parasitic infections (NAACP - rule of thumb), skin diseases (eczema, pemphigus), drug reactions, autoimmune disorders, Hodgkin's lymphoma
- Eosinopenia (↓): Cushing's syndrome, corticosteroid therapy, acute infections/stress, Addison's disease
4. Functions of eosinophils:
- Phagocytosis of antigen-antibody complexes
- Limit/modulate allergic reactions (release histaminase, arylsulfatase to break down mediators)
- Defense against parasites (release major basic protein - MBP, eosinophil cationic protein - ECP)
- Release of platelet-activating factor (PAF)
- Involved in inflammatory responses via release of leukotrienes
CHART 9 - Stroke Volume & Cardiac Output by Fick's Principle (Pages 78 & 100 & 117)
Data (Pages 78 & 117):
- O₂ in mixed venous blood = 14.8 mL/100 mL
- O₂ in systemic arterial blood = 19.5 mL/100 mL
- Heart rate = 70/min
- O₂ consumption = 245 mL/min
Data (Page 100):
- O₂ in pulmonary artery = 14 mL/dL
- O₂ in brachial artery = 19 mL/dL
- O₂ consumption = 250 mL/min
Calculations (Pages 78 & 117):
Cardiac Output (CO) = O₂ consumption / A-V O₂ difference A-V difference = 19.5 - 14.8 = 4.7 mL/100 mL = 47 mL/L CO = 245 mL/min ÷ 47 mL/L = 5.21 L/min ≈ 5.2 L/min (Normal) Stroke Volume (SV) = CO / Heart rate = 5210 mL/min ÷ 70 = 74.4 mL/beat ≈ 70-80 mL (Normal)
Calculations (Page 100):
A-V difference = 19 - 14 = 5 mL/dL = 50 mL/L CO = 250 / 50 = 5.0 L/min (Normal)
Answers to theory questions:
1. Define stroke volume & cardiac output:
- Stroke Volume (SV): Volume of blood ejected by one ventricle per beat. Normal = 70-80 mL.
- Cardiac Output (CO): Volume of blood pumped by one ventricle per minute. CO = SV × HR. Normal = 5 L/min.
2. Factors affecting cardiac output:
- Heart rate: ↑ HR generally ↑ CO (but at very high rates, diastolic filling time is too short)
- Stroke volume is determined by:
- Preload (Frank-Starling law) - ↑ venous return → ↑ SV
- Afterload - ↑ aortic pressure → ↓ SV
- Myocardial contractility - sympathetic stimulation ↑ SV
- Venous return, blood volume, posture, respiratory movements
3. Methods of measurement of cardiac output:
- Fick's principle (direct Fick method) - gold standard
- Indicator dilution - dye dilution (indocyanine green) or thermodilution
- Echocardiography (Doppler)
- Impedance cardiography
- Pulse contour analysis
4. Cardiac Index:
Cardiac Index = Cardiac Output / Body Surface Area (BSA) Normal = 3.0-3.5 L/min/m² It corrects for body size and allows comparison between individuals of different sizes.
Fick's Principle (Page 100 question):
Fick's principle states that the amount of a substance taken up by an organ per unit time equals the blood flow to that organ multiplied by the arteriovenous difference of that substance.
CO = O₂ consumption / (Arterial O₂ content - Venous O₂ content)
CHART 10 - Color Index (Page 88)
Q. Calculate Color Index (CI) from:
- Hb = 16 g/dL (Normal 100% Hb = 15 g/dL)
- RBC = 6 million/mm³ (Normal 100% RBC = 5.0 million/mm³)
Calculation:
CI = (Patient Hb% / Normal Hb%) ÷ (Patient RBC% / Normal RBC%) Hb% = 16/15 × 100 = 106.7% RBC% = 6/5 × 100 = 120% CI = 106.7 / 120 = 0.89 (Normal CI = 1; range 0.85-1.15)
Answers to theory questions:
1 & 2. Red cell indices and Color Index:
Color Index reflects the average hemoglobin content of RBCs relative to normal. CI < 0.85 = hypochromic; CI > 1.15 = hyperchromic. (See CHART 2 for full list of indices.)
3. Most appropriate index of Hb content of RBC:
MCHC is the most appropriate and reliable index of Hb concentration within RBCs (see CHART 2 Q2 answer).
4. Classify anemia:
- See CHART 2 Q4 answer above.
CHART 11 - Physiological Dead Space (Page 96)
Q. Calculate physiological dead space from:
- Tidal volume = 450 mL
- Alveolar air PCO₂ = 40 mmHg
- Expired air PCO₂ = 26 mmHg
Calculation (Bohr's formula):
VD/VT = (PACO₂ - PECO₂) / PACO₂ VD/VT = (40 - 26) / 40 = 14/40 = 0.35 VD = 0.35 × 450 = 157.5 mL ≈ 158 mL (Normal anatomical dead space ~150 mL)
Answers to theory questions:
1. Define dead space:
Dead space is the portion of the tidal volume that does not participate in gas exchange. It is "wasted" ventilation.
2. Normal volume of anatomical dead space:
~150 mL (approximately 2 mL/kg body weight, or roughly equal to body weight in pounds in mL - e.g., 150 lb person has ~150 mL dead space).
3. Physiological vs. anatomical dead space:
| Anatomical Dead Space | Physiological Dead Space |
|---|---|
| Volume of conducting airways (nose to terminal bronchioles) | All areas ventilated but not perfused (anatomical + alveolar dead space) |
| ~150 mL | ≥150 mL (=150 mL in health) |
| Fixed structure | Increases in lung disease |
| Measured by Fowler's method | Measured by Bohr's formula |
Physiological dead space = Anatomical dead space + Alveolar dead space. In healthy individuals they are equal (alveolar dead space ≈ 0).
4. Factors that increase dead space:
- Positive pressure ventilation
- Pulmonary embolism (alveoli ventilated but not perfused)
- Old age
- Upright posture (apex of lung is underperfused)
- Emphysema (destruction of capillaries)
- Mechanical ventilation with large tidal volumes
CHART 12 - Velocity of Nerve Impulse (Page 109)
Q. Calculate velocity of nerve impulse from:
- Latent period at spinal end = 0.01 sec
- Latent period at muscle end = 0.005 sec
- Distance between two stimulated points = 7.5 cm
Calculation:
Time difference = 0.01 - 0.005 = 0.005 sec Velocity = Distance / Time = 7.5 cm / 0.005 sec = 1500 cm/sec = 15 m/sec
Answers to theory questions:
1. Factors affecting velocity of nerve conduction:
- Diameter of fiber: Larger diameter → faster conduction (less internal resistance)
- Myelination: Myelinated fibers conduct faster (saltatory conduction) than unmyelinated
- Temperature: ↑ temp → ↑ velocity; cooling slows conduction (used in nerve blocks)
- Age: Conduction velocity is lower in newborns; reaches adult values by age 3-5 years
2. What is a nerve impulse?
A nerve impulse (action potential) is a self-propagating wave of electrical depolarization that travels along the nerve fiber membrane. It is an all-or-none response involving rapid Na⁺ influx (depolarization) followed by K⁺ efflux (repolarization), restoring the resting membrane potential of -70 mV.
3. Classification of nerve fibers:
| Type | Subtype | Myelin | Function | Velocity |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| A | Aα | + | Motor (skeletal muscle), proprioception | 70-120 m/s |
| A | Aβ | + | Touch, pressure | 40-70 m/s |
| A | Aγ | + | Motor to intrafusal fibers | 15-30 m/s |
| A | Aδ | + | Pain (fast/sharp), temperature | 6-30 m/s |
| B | - | + | Preganglionic autonomic | 3-15 m/s |
| C | - | - | Pain (slow/dull), postganglionic autonomic | 0.5-2 m/s |
4. Characteristic features based on fiber diameter:
- Large diameter fibers → lower internal resistance → faster conduction
- Larger fibers have more Na⁺/K⁺ ATPase pumps → better maintained resting potential
- Myelination + large diameter = fastest conduction (A-alpha: 70-120 m/s)
- Unmyelinated + small diameter = slowest (C fibers: 0.5-2 m/s)
- Saltatory conduction in myelinated fibers: impulse "jumps" between nodes of Ranvier
CHART 13 - Properties of Cardiac Muscle (Page 56)
Answers already partially provided in the PDF (from answer key on page 56):
Identify the chart & label a, b, c:
The chart shows properties of cardiac muscle:
- a = Extrasystole
- b = Compensatory pause
- c = Treppe/Staircase phenomenon
What is extrasystole? Why is it followed by a compensatory pause?
- Extrasystole: When the ventricle is stimulated during the relaxation phase (relative refractory period), it may contract before the next expected normal beat. This premature contraction is called extrasystole.
- Compensatory pause: The next normal impulse (from SA node) arrives during the refractory period of the extrasystole, so the ventricle fails to respond. The next beat occurs only when the SA node fires again - producing a pause (longer than normal diastole) called the compensatory pause.
Define absolute and relative refractory period:
- ARP (Absolute Refractory Period): Period during which NO stimulus (however strong) can re-excite the tissue. ARP of cardiac muscle = 250 msec. This prevents tetany of cardiac muscle.
- RRP (Relative Refractory Period): Period during which a STRONGER-than-normal stimulus CAN re-excite the tissue. RRP of cardiac muscle = 50 msec.
Predisposing factors for extrasystole:
- Excess coffee, alcohol, or tobacco
- Anxiety / stress
- Hyperthyroidism
- Hypoxia
- Electrolyte imbalance (especially hypokalemia)
Normal rate of extrasystoles: 2-4/minute is normal. >6/minute or extrasystoles in a diseased heart (e.g., myocardial infarction) are clinically significant.
Note: Pages showing clinical examination tasks (cardiovascular exam, cranial nerve exams, reflex elicitation, blood pressure recording, ECG, spirometry, ergography, perimetry) are practical procedural tasks done on live subjects - not chart calculations. The answers above cover all calculation-based and theory-based questions extracted from your PDF.
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Physiology Practical Charts QA
PDF Document · PDF
What's inside the PDF:
The document covers all 11 major topics from your practical charts, each section structured as:
| Section | Topic |
|---|---|
| 1 | Dyspneic Index |
| 2 | Red Cell Indices - MCV, MCH, MCHC, Color Index |
| 3 | Absolute Eosinophil Count |
| 4 | Glomerular Filtration - NEFP & GFR |
| 5 | Tubular Maximum for Glucose (TmG) |
| 6 | Lung Compliance |
| 7 | Lung Volumes & Capacities (RV & FRC) |
| 8 | Physiological Dead Space |
| 9 | Cardiac Output by Fick's Principle |
| 10 | Velocity of Nerve Impulse |
| 11 | Properties of Cardiac Muscle (Extrasystole & Refractory Periods) |
| + | Quick Reference Table of all normal values |
Each section includes:
- Brief information explaining the concept
- Formula highlighted in a code box
- Solved numerical example with step-by-step calculation
- 4 Q&As in red (question) / green (answer) colour coding
- Tables for classification (nerve fibers, anaemia types, lung volumes, formulas)
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