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PHARMACEUTICS — SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (2 Marks Each)

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UNIT – I: Dosage Forms & Posology

Child's dose = (Body weight of child in pounds / 150) × Adult dose

1. Superscription – patient details, date, Rx symbol
2. Inscription – name and quantity of drug(s)
3. Subscription – directions to the pharmacist (dispense instructions)
4. Signa (Transcription) – directions for the patient
5. Prescriber's signature & registration number
6. Refill instructions (if any)

• Dosage: The amount (quantity) of a drug to be administered at one time or over a specified period to produce the desired therapeutic effect.
• Dosage Form: The physical formulation or vehicle in which a drug is administered (e.g., tablet, syrup, injection).

1. Illegible handwriting
2. Use of ambiguous abbreviations
3. Incorrect dose or dosage form
4. Wrong drug name (look-alike / sound-alike drugs)
5. Missing patient information
6. Omission of route or frequency of administration
7. Decimal point errors (e.g., 1.0 mg misread as 10 mg)
8. Drug–drug interaction not considered

Child's dose = [Age (in years) / (Age + 12)] × Adult dose

• Establishes when the prescription was written.
• Helps determine if the prescription is current or expired.
• Controls misuse and abuse of habit-forming drugs (controlled substances have validity periods).
• Essential for medicolegal records.
• Prevents use of outdated prescriptions.

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UNIT – II: History & Development of Pharmacy

• Community/retail pharmacy
• Hospital pharmacy
• Clinical pharmacy
• Industrial/manufacturing pharmacy
• Regulatory affairs
• Research & development
• Drug information services
• Forensic pharmacy

• D.Pharm (Diploma in Pharmacy) – 2 years
• B.Pharm (Bachelor of Pharmacy) – 4 years
• Pharm.D (Doctor of Pharmacy) – 6 years
• M.Pharm (Master of Pharmacy) – 2 years
• Ph.D in Pharmacy – 3–5 years

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UNIT – III: Pharmaceutical Calculations

• Mass: gram (g)
• Volume: litre (L)
• Length: metre (m)

• Mass of glucose = 4.6 g
• Mass of water = 145.2 g
• Total mass of solution = 4.6 + 145.2 = 149.8 g

% w/w = (4.6 / 149.8) × 100 = 3.07% w/w

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UNIT – IV: Powders

1. Should be fine (pass through 180 μm or 120-mesh sieve)
2. Must be free-flowing and non-caking
3. Should be non-irritating and non-toxic
4. Must be sterile if applied to wounds
5. Should have good spreading (covering) ability
6. Must be chemically stable and compatible with skin

• Dusting powders
• Tooth powders (dentifrices)
• Douche powders
• Snuffs
• Insufflations
• Bulk powders
• Divided/unit-dose powders

• Coarse, moderately coarse, fine, very fine (as per pharmacopoeia sieve numbers)

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UNIT – V: Monophasic Liquid Dosage Forms

• Evacuant enemas: to relieve constipation or clear the bowel (e.g., soap enema)
• Retention enemas: to administer drugs for systemic absorption (e.g., steroid enema for ulcerative colitis)
• Diagnostic enemas: barium enema for X-ray

1. Simple syrup – sucrose in water (66.7% w/w), no medicament
2. Medicated syrup – contains active drug (e.g., Chlorpheniramine syrup)
3. Flavoured syrup – contains flavouring agents (e.g., cherry syrup)
4. Sugar-free syrup – uses sorbitol, glycerol, or other non-cariogenic sweeteners for diabetic patients

1. Solutions (aqueous, hydroalcoholic)
2. Syrups
3. Elixirs
4. Spirits (alcoholic solutions)
5. Aromatic waters
6. Lotions
7. Liniments
8. Gargles
9. Mouthwashes
10. Ear drops / nasal drops / eye drops
11. Enemas

• Throat Paint: A viscous, glycerol-based preparation painted onto the throat/tonsillar area using a brush or swab. The high viscosity ensures prolonged contact with mucosa. Used for throat infections and ulcers. Example: Mandl's paint (iodine + potassium iodide in glycerin).
• Ear Drops: Liquid preparations (solutions or suspensions) instilled into the external ear canal using a dropper. Used to treat ear infections, remove cerumen, reduce inflammation. Example: Neomycin ear drops, Olive oil ear drops.

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UNIT – VI: Suspensions & Emulsions

1. Particles must settle slowly and redisperse easily on shaking
2. Must not cake (form a hard sediment)
3. Should have uniform particle size
4. Must be pourable (suitable viscosity)
5. Should be physically, chemically, and microbiologically stable
6. Must be aesthetically acceptable
7. Easy to dose accurately
8. Free from irritation

• O/W (Oil-in-Water): oil droplets in water — less greasy, better for oral/IV use. Example: liquid paraffin emulsion.
• W/O (Water-in-Oil): water droplets in oil — greasy, better for skin application. Example: cold cream.
• Multiple emulsions: W/O/W or O/W/O

• Macroemulsion (0.5–10 μm)
• Microemulsion (< 0.1 μm)

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UNIT – VII: Suppositories

Weight of base required = (Nominal weight − Weight of drug / DV) × number of suppositories

1. Melts at 30–36°C (just below body temperature)
2. Solid at room temperature, liquid when warmed
3. Non-irritating to mucous membranes
4. Polymorphic — exists in α, β', β, γ forms
5. Contracts on cooling (facilitates removal from mould)
6. Immiscible with body secretions (water)
7. Compatible with most drugs

• Prevent the suppository from sticking to the mould
• Allow easy removal without breaking
• Produce smooth, uniformly shaped suppositories (Note: lubrication is not required for glycogelatin or PEG bases as they do not contract on cooling)

1. Name of the preparation
2. Strength/dose of active ingredient
3. Number of suppositories
4. Route of administration (For Rectal Use Only)
5. Storage instructions (e.g., store in a cool place / refrigerate)
6. Expiry date
7. Manufacturer's name and batch number

• Hand-moulded presses (for small batches)
• Automatic suppository machines with filling nozzles (for industrial scale)
• Compression moulds (for cold compression method)

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UNIT – VIII: Galenicals / Extracts

1. Particle size of crude drug
2. Nature and polarity of the solvent (menstruum)
3. Temperature
4. Duration of extraction
5. Concentration gradient between drug and solvent
6. pH of the solvent
7. Agitation/mixing

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UNIT – IX: Surgical Aids

• Absorbing wound secretions
• Preventing microbial contamination
• Protecting from mechanical injury
• Maintaining a moist wound environment Examples: gauze, lint, cotton wool, adhesive dressings.

• Padding under plaster casts
• Bandaging sensitive areas (children, elderly)
• Retention of dressings over irregular body surfaces

• Acts as a haemostatic agent by absorbing blood and providing a scaffold for clot formation
• Absorbed by the body within 4–6 weeks
• Used in surgical sites where sutures/ligatures are impractical
• Used in neurosurgery, dental extractions, and ENT procedures

• Non-adherent wound dressing — prevents sticking to wound surface
• Used on burns, skin grafts, ulcers, and raw areas
• Allows wound exudate to pass through
• Reduces pain on dressing changes
• Base for medicated dressings (e.g., chlorhexidine-impregnated)

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UNIT – X: Incompatibilities in Pharmacy

Date: 20/05/2026

Rx
   Aspirin              500 mg
   Paracetamol          500 mg
   Caffeine              30 mg
   Sig: 1 tab. t.i.d. after meals
   Dispense: 30 tablets

Dr. A. Sharma
Reg. No. 12345

1. Adjust pH of the formulation (buffers)
2. Use non-aqueous solvents (e.g., propylene glycol)
3. Add preservatives/antioxidants
4. Reduce water activity
5. Lyophilisation (freeze-drying)
6. Storage at low temperatures
7. Use of sealed containers (moisture-proof packaging)

1. Precipitation – insoluble compound formed (e.g., mixing calcium and phosphate salts)
2. Oxidation-Reduction – e.g., iron salts oxidising tannins
3. Hydrolysis – drug degraded by water
4. Acid-Base reaction – neutralisation producing CO₂ (effervescence)
5. Complexation – tetracycline + calcium → inactive chelate
6. Photolysis – light-induced degradation
7. Polymerization – as defined above

1. Insolubility – drug insoluble in the prescribed vehicle
2. Immiscibility – two liquids that do not mix (oil + water without emulsifier)
3. Liquefaction (eutectic) – mixing of two solid substances causes melting
4. Precipitation – drug coming out of solution when solvents mixed
5. Color change – due to light exposure or pH change
6. Adsorption – drug absorbed onto container walls

1. Use of co-solvents (ethanol, glycerol, propylene glycol) to improve solubility
2. Use of emulsifying agents for immiscible liquids
3. Adjusting pH or temperature
4. Use of an appropriate solubiliser/surfactant
5. Mixing eutectic components separately with inert diluents
6. Reformulating as a suspension or emulsion

1. pH adjustment using suitable buffers
2. Substitution with a compatible drug/excipient
3. Use of antioxidants (Na metabisulphite, ascorbic acid) for oxidation
4. Separate dispensing of incompatible drugs (issue in separate packets)
5. Change of vehicle (non-aqueous for hydrolysis)
6. Use of complexing agents (e.g., EDTA to prevent oxidation)
7. Refrigeration or reduced storage temperature to slow reactions
8. Avoid prolonged contact (prepare extemporaneously)

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📘 PHARMACEUTICS — SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS (2 Marks Each)

💡 Exam Tips:

• Always write a 1-line definition first, then points/table/flowchart
• Use underline or bold for key terms
• Add a small example wherever possible — examiners love it
• Keep answers 4–6 lines max for 2-mark questions

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✅ UNIT – I: Dosage Forms & Posology

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╔══════════════════════════════════════════════════════╗
║                                                      ║
║   Child's Dose = Weight of child (in lbs) × Adult   ║
║                  ─────────────────────────────────   ║
║                              150                     ║
║                                                      ║
╚══════════════════════════════════════════════════════╝

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┌─────────────────────────────────────┐
│  PARTS OF A PRESCRIPTION            │
│                                     │
│  1️⃣  Superscription  → Patient info │
│        + Date + Rx symbol           │
│                                     │
│  2️⃣  Inscription     → Drug name   │
│        + Dose + Quantity            │
│                                     │
│  3️⃣  Subscription    → Instructions│
│        to pharmacist                │
│                                     │
│  4️⃣  Signa (Transcription)          │
│        → Directions to patient      │
│                                     │
│  5️⃣  Prescriber's Signature         │
│        + Reg. Number                │
│                                     │
│  6️⃣  Renewal/Refill Instructions    │
└─────────────────────────────────────┘

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         POSOLOGY
            │
    ┌───────┼───────┐
    ↓       ↓       ↓
   Age    Weight   Sex
    │       │       │
    ↓       ↓       ↓
  Disease  Route  Individual
  State   of Admin Variation

---

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╔═══════════════════════════════════════════════════╗
║                                                   ║
║   Child's Dose =     Age (in years)    × Adult   ║
║                  ──────────────────────  Dose    ║
║                     Age (in years) + 12           ║
║                                                   ║
╚═══════════════════════════════════════════════════╝

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• The dosage form to prepare (tablet, syrup, etc.)
• Quantity to dispense
• Any special compounding directions

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          WHY DATE IS IMPORTANT?
                  │
    ┌─────────────┼──────────────┐
    ↓             ↓              ↓
Shows when     Prevents       Legal
it was         misuse of      Record
written        old scripts    (Medicolegal)
    │             │              │
    ↓             ↓              ↓
Controls      Controls      Validity of
refills      habit-forming  narcotic
             drugs          prescriptions

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✅ UNIT – II: History & Development of Pharmacy

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PCI was established in 1949 under the Pharmacy Act, 1948.

Pharmacy Act passed → 1948
PCI Established    → 1949

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🏅 Prof. M.L. Schroff is called the Father of Indian Pharmacy Education

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              SCOPE OF PHARMACY
                    │
   ┌────────────────┼────────────────┐
   ↓                ↓                ↓
Community       Hospital          Clinical
Pharmacy        Pharmacy          Pharmacy
   │                │                │
   ↓                ↓                ↓
Industrial      Research &        Regulatory
Pharmacy        Development       Affairs

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Pharmacy Act = 1948 Came into force in 1949

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🎓 T.K. Gajjar — First B.Pharm graduate in India Year: 1937 — from Banaras Hindu University (BHU)

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🎓 Prof. B.N. Ghosh — First PhD in Pharmacy in India Year: 1944

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✅ UNIT – III: Pharmaceutical Calculations

---

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  Mass   →  gram (g)
  Volume →  litre (L)
  Length →  metre (m)

---

Blood plasma osmolarity = 308 mOsm/L

Hypertonic  →  > 308 mOsm/L
Isotonic    →  = 308 mOsm/L
Hypotonic   →  < 308 mOsm/L

---

• Glucose = 4.6 g
• Water = 145.2 g
• Total solution = 4.6 + 145.2 = 149.8 g

% w/w = (Mass of solute / Mass of solution) × 100
      = (4.6 / 149.8) × 100
      = 3.07% w/w  ✅

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✅ 1 Tablespoon = 15 mL

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✅ 1 Hectogram = 100 grams

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✅ 1 Kilogram = 1 Litre (for water, since density of water = 1 kg/L)

---

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✅ 0.9% w/v NaCl (Normal Saline) is isotonic with blood plasma.

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5% v/v = 5 mL in every 100 mL
For 1000 mL → Take 50 mL of ethylene glycol
             + Make up to 1000 mL with distilled water

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✅ UNIT – IV: Powders

---

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• Tooth powder
• Toothpaste
• Tooth gel

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Good Dusting Powder must be:

  ✅ Fine (pass through 180 μm sieve)
  ✅ Free-flowing, non-caking
  ✅ Non-irritating to skin
  ✅ Sterile (when used on wounds)
  ✅ Chemically stable
  ✅ Good spreading ability

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           POWDERS
              │
    ┌─────────┴──────────┐
    ↓                    ↓
 By USE             By PARTICLE SIZE
    │                    │
Dusting         Coarse / Moderately coarse
Tooth powder    Fine / Very fine
Douche powder
Snuffs
Insufflations
Bulk / Unit dose

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✅ UNIT – V: Monophasic Liquid Dosage Forms

---

---

---

---

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  Without preservatives → Microbial growth → Drug spoils
  With preservatives    → No growth       → Safe + Stable

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    MONOPHASIC LIQUID DOSAGE FORMS
              │
    ┌─────────┼──────────┐
    ↓         ↓          ↓
 ORAL      TOPICAL    PARENTERAL
    │         │
Syrups    Lotions
Elixirs   Liniments
Spirits   Ear drops
Solutions Nasal drops
Gargles   Eye drops
Enemas

---

---

• High viscosity → prolonged contact with mucosa
• 📌 Example: Mandl's paint (Iodine + KI in glycerin)

• 📌 Used for: Ear infections, cerumen removal
• 📌 Example: Neomycin ear drops, Olive oil ear drops

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✅ UNIT – VI: Suspensions & Emulsions

---

Suspension = Solid (dispersed phase) + Liquid (continuous phase)

---

Good Suspension:
  ✅ Settles slowly
  ✅ Redisperses easily on shaking
  ✅ Does NOT cake
  ✅ Uniform particle size
  ✅ Pourable consistency
  ✅ Physically and chemically stable
  ✅ Accurate dosing
  ✅ Aesthetically acceptable

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Emulsion = Oil + Water + Emulsifier → Stable mixture

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          EMULSIONS
               │
    ┌──────────┴──────────┐
    ↓                     ↓
  O/W                   W/O
(Oil in Water)      (Water in Oil)
    │                     │
Less greasy,          Greasy,
oral/IV use           skin use
    │                     │
Example:            Example:
Liquid paraffin      Cold cream
emulsion
               │
    ┌──────────┴──────────┐
    ↓                     ↓
Multiple emulsions    Microemulsion
(W/O/W or O/W/O)      (< 0.1 μm)

---

---

---

• Reduce interfacial tension between oil & water
• Form a protective film around dispersed droplets
• Prevent coalescence (droplets joining back)

---

Phase inversion can be caused by:
  → Change in temperature
  → Adding excess of internal phase
  → Change in emulsifier concentration
  → Adding electrolytes

---

---

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✅ UNIT – VII: Suppositories

---

---

Formula:
Weight of base = (Nominal weight − Drug weight/DV) × No. of suppositories

---

---

Properties of Theobroma Oil:
  ✅ Melts at 30–36°C (just below body temp)
  ✅ Solid at room temperature
  ✅ Non-irritating to mucous membranes
  ✅ Polymorphic (α, β', β, γ forms)
  ✅ Contracts on cooling → easy removal from mould
  ✅ Compatible with most drugs
  ❌ Immiscible with body secretions (water)

---

• Larger than suppositories (5–15 g)
• Conical or ovoid in shape
• 📌 Example: Clotrimazole pessary, Metronidazole pessary

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• Prevent the suppository from sticking to the mould
• Allow easy removal without breaking
• Produce smooth, uniform suppositories

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Label must include:
  1️⃣  Name of preparation
  2️⃣  Strength/dose of active ingredient
  3️⃣  Number of suppositories in pack
  4️⃣  Route: "For Rectal Use Only"
  5️⃣  Storage: "Store in cool place/Refrigerate"
  6️⃣  Expiry date
  7️⃣  Manufacturer name + Batch number

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• Melt or dissolve to release drug locally
• 📌 Example: Urethral bougies with antiseptics for urethral infections

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✅ UNIT – VIII: Galenicals

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• Named after the Greek physician Galen
• Include: tinctures, extracts, decoctions, infusions

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Crude Drug + Solvent (Menstruum)
         ↓
     EXTRACTION
    ↙          ↘
Miscella       Marc
(liquid         (residue
 extract)        left)

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Factors Affecting Extraction:
  1️⃣  Particle size of drug
  2️⃣  Nature/polarity of solvent
  3️⃣  Temperature
  4️⃣  Duration of extraction
  5️⃣  Concentration gradient
  6️⃣  pH of solvent
  7️⃣  Agitation/mixing

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• Used for hard materials: roots, barks, woody stems
• 📌 Short shelf life (no alcohol)
• 📌 Example: Decoction of Cinchona bark

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• Used when boiling would destroy active constituents
• Container is closed to prevent solvent evaporation

---

---

     Solvent added from top
           ↓
   ┌───────────────┐
   │  Packed Drug  │  ← Moistened crude drug
   │    Powder     │
   └───────┬───────┘
           ↓
     Percolate collected
     (the extract)

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Boiling water poured over drug
        ↓
Steeped for 15 minutes
        ↓
Strained through infusion pot/strainer
        ↓
       Infusion ready

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✅ UNIT – IX: Surgical Aids

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---

---

---

  ✅ Absorb wound secretions
  ✅ Prevent microbial contamination
  ✅ Protect from mechanical injury
  ✅ Maintain moist wound environment

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TEST:
10 g cotton + 100 mL water → Boil → Cool
                ↓
Test with litmus paper / methyl orange
                ↓
PASS: No pink colour (pH not < 5.0)
FAIL: Pink colour = acid residues present

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• Padding under plaster casts
• Sensitive areas (children, elderly)
• Retention of dressings on irregular surfaces

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┌─────────────────────────────────┐
│  Top: Absorbent layer           │
│  Middle: Medicated layer        │
│  Bottom: Wound contact layer    │
│           (non-stick)           │
└─────────────────────────────────┘

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---

Uses:
  ✅ Non-adherent dressing — does NOT stick to wounds
  ✅ Used on burns, skin grafts, ulcers
  ✅ Allows exudate to pass through
  ✅ Reduces pain on dressing change
  ✅ Base for medicated dressings (e.g., chlorhexidine)

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TEST (IP/BP Method):
Small tuft (~0.1 g) placed on distilled water surface at 20°C
                    ↓
          Time for cotton to sink is noted
                    ↓
  PASS: Sinks within 10 seconds ✅
  FAIL: Does not sink within 10 seconds ❌

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✅ UNIT – X: Incompatibilities in Pharmacy

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═══════════════════════════════════════
        Dr. A. Sharma, MBBS
        Reg. No. MCI/12345
        City Hospital, Pune
        Date: 20/05/2026
───────────────────────────────────────
Patient: Mr. Raj Kumar      Age: 35 yrs

℞

Aspirin          500 mg  }
Paracetamol      500 mg  }  Make tablets
Caffeine          30 mg  }

Sig: 1 tablet three times daily
     after meals

Dispense: 30 tablets

            Signature: Dr. A. Sharma
═══════════════════════════════════════

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How to overcome HYDROLYSIS:
  1️⃣  Adjust pH (use buffers)
  2️⃣  Use non-aqueous solvents (propylene glycol)
  3️⃣  Add antioxidants
  4️⃣  Freeze-dry (lyophilise) the product
  5️⃣  Store at low temperature (refrigerate)
  6️⃣  Use moisture-proof packaging
  7️⃣  Reduce water activity

---

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Physical Incompatibility causes:
  1️⃣  Insolubility of drug in vehicle
  2️⃣  Immiscibility of two liquids (oil + water)
  3️⃣  Liquefaction (eutectic mixtures)
  4️⃣  Precipitation when solvents mixed
  5️⃣  Colour change (pH/light)
  6️⃣  Adsorption on container walls

---

Solutions:
  ✅ Use co-solvents (ethanol, glycerol)
  ✅ Add emulsifying agent for immiscible liquids
  ✅ Adjust pH or temperature
  ✅ Add surfactant/solubiliser
  ✅ Mix eutectic substances separately with diluent
  ✅ Reformulate as suspension or emulsion

---

Solutions:
  ✅ Adjust pH using buffers
  ✅ Substitute with a compatible drug/excipient
  ✅ Add antioxidants (Na metabisulphite, ascorbic acid)
  ✅ Dispense incompatible drugs in separate packets
  ✅ Change vehicle to non-aqueous (prevent hydrolysis)
  ✅ Add complexing agents (EDTA)
  ✅ Refrigerate (slow down reactions)
  ✅ Prepare fresh/extemporaneously

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🏆 Final Exam Tips

┌─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐
│              HOW TO SCORE FULL MARKS                    │
│                                                         │
│  ✅ Always start with a ONE-LINE definition             │
│  ✅ Use TABLES for comparisons                          │
│  ✅ Use FLOWCHARTS for processes/classifications        │
│  ✅ Add a PRACTICAL EXAMPLE at the end                  │
│  ✅ Underline/bold key terms                            │
│  ✅ Write formulas in a box or highlighted              │
│  ✅ Keep handwriting neat and readable                  │
│  ✅ Never leave any part unanswered                     │
└─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘