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1 List any two cause of renal calculi 2 Define aki 3What is cushing symdrome

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"renal calculi"

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"acute kidney injury"

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"Cushing syndrome"

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KDIGO acute kidney injury definition Cushing syndrome NIH renal stones causes

  1. Any two causes/risk factors of renal calculi (kidney stones):
    • Low urine volume/dehydration, which concentrates stone-forming substances in urine.
    • Hypercalciuria, meaning excess calcium in the urine.
  2. Definition of AKI:
    Acute kidney injury (AKI) is a sudden decline in kidney function occurring over hours to days, causing retention of waste products and often reduced urine output. It is commonly diagnosed by a rise in serum creatinine and/or low urine output.
  3. Cushing syndrome:
    Cushing syndrome is a group of signs and symptoms caused by prolonged exposure to excessive cortisol in the body. Causes include prolonged corticosteroid treatment, an adrenal cortisol-producing tumor, or excess ACTH production.
    Cushing disease is the specific form caused by an ACTH-secreting pituitary adenoma.

1 write a one disorder caused by excess growth hormone and one cause by ts deficiency 2 write the cause of pleural effusion

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"pleural effusion" AND etiology

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pleural effusion causes Merck Manual heart failure tuberculosis

  1. Disorders due to hormone imbalance
    • Excess growth hormone: Acromegaly in adults.
      (In children, it causes gigantism.)
    • TSH deficiency: Secondary hypothyroidism.
  2. Causes of pleural effusion
    • Congestive heart failure
    • Pneumonia, including tuberculosis
    • Malignancy
    • Pulmonary embolism
    • Cirrhosis or kidney disease with low blood protein
The commonest cause is congestive heart failure. Merck Manual overview lists heart failure, pneumonia, cancer, pulmonary embolism, and tuberculosis among frequent causes.

Explain congenital heart disease with example 5 mark easy understand

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"congenital heart defects"

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CDC congenital heart defects ventricular septal defect definition

Congenital Heart Disease (CHD)

Congenital heart disease means a structural defect in the heart that is present at birth. It develops when the heart does not form normally during fetal life. The defect may affect the heart chambers, valves, walls, or great blood vessels.

Examples

  • Atrial septal defect (ASD)
  • Ventricular septal defect (VSD)
  • Patent ductus arteriosus (PDA)
  • Tetralogy of Fallot

Example: Ventricular Septal Defect (VSD)

VSD is a hole in the wall (septum) between the two lower chambers of the heart, called ventricles.
  • Normally, oxygen-rich blood stays on the left side of the heart.
  • In VSD, blood passes from the left ventricle to the right ventricle through the hole.
  • This sends extra blood to the lungs and makes the heart work harder.

Symptoms

  • Difficulty in feeding
  • Poor weight gain
  • Fast breathing
  • Recurrent chest infections
  • Heart murmur
Small VSDs may close naturally. Large VSDs may need medicines or surgery to close the hole. The CDC description of VSD explains that it is a congenital hole in the ventricular septum.
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