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Glaucoma ophthalmology

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Glaucoma is a broad ophthalmology topic. It covers:
  1. Definition, aqueous-humor physiology, and optic-nerve damage
  2. Classification: primary open-angle, angle-closure, secondary, congenital, normal-tension
  3. Risk factors, symptoms, and examination: tonometry, gonioscopy, optic disc/OCT, visual fields
  4. Acute angle-closure emergency
  5. Medical, laser, and surgical treatment
  6. Follow-up and progression monitoring
At a high level, glaucoma is progressive optic neuropathy, usually but not always associated with elevated intraocular pressure. It can cause irreversible visual-field loss, often silently in open-angle disease, whereas acute angle closure presents with sudden painful red eye and reduced vision and needs emergency care.
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Which glaucoma topic should I explain in detail?

Glaucoma is a broad ophthalmology topic. It covers:
  1. Definition, aqueous-humor physiology, and optic-nerve damage
  2. Classification: primary open-angle, angle-closure, secondary, congenital, normal-tension
  3. Risk factors, symptoms, and examination: tonometry, gonioscopy, optic disc/OCT, visual fields
  4. Acute angle-closure emergency
  5. Medical, laser, and surgical treatment
  6. Follow-up and progression monitoring
At a high level, glaucoma is progressive optic neuropathy, usually but not always associated with elevated intraocular pressure. It can cause irreversible visual-field loss, often silently in open-angle disease, whereas acute angle closure presents with sudden painful red eye and reduced vision and needs emergency care.Which part of glaucoma would you like covered?
  • Complete exam note
  • Types and diagnosis
  • Acute angle-closure glaucoma
  • Treatment overview
  • Investigations: tonometry, gonioscopy, OCT, visual fields

Summarised notes

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American Academy Ophthalmology primary open angle glaucoma preferred practice pattern angle closure glaucoma

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Glaucoma: Summarised Ophthalmology Notes

Definition

Glaucoma is a group of disorders causing progressive optic neuropathy, with retinal nerve fibre layer loss, optic-disc cupping, and characteristic visual-field defects. Raised intraocular pressure (IOP) is the most important modifiable risk factor, but glaucoma can occur with normal IOP.
Vision lost from glaucoma is irreversible, but progression can often be slowed or stopped by reducing IOP.

Aqueous humour and IOP

  • Aqueous humour is produced by the ciliary processes.
  • It passes from posterior chamber through the pupil into anterior chamber.
  • It drains mainly through the trabecular meshwork -> Schlemm canal -> episcleral veins.
  • Obstruction to outflow raises IOP and may damage the optic nerve.

Classification

1. Primary open-angle glaucoma (POAG)

  • Chronic, progressive optic neuropathy in adults.
  • Open anterior chamber angle on gonioscopy.
  • Usually painless and asymptomatic until advanced disease.
  • Gradual peripheral visual-field loss, followed by central visual loss late.
Risk factors
  • Raised IOP or marked inter-eye asymmetry
  • Increasing age
  • Family history
  • African ancestry
  • Myopia
  • Thin central cornea
  • Vascular factors: low ocular perfusion pressure, migraine/vasospasm, nocturnal hypotension
Kanski’s Clinical Ophthalmology, 10th ed., p. 363-364.

2. Primary angle-closure disease

Occurs when the peripheral iris blocks the trabecular meshwork, preventing aqueous outflow.
  • Primary angle-closure suspect (PACS): narrow/occludable angle, no raised IOP, peripheral anterior synechiae (PAS), or optic-nerve damage.
  • Primary angle closure (PAC): iridotrabecular contact with raised IOP and/or PAS, but no glaucomatous optic neuropathy.
  • Primary angle-closure glaucoma (PACG): angle closure plus glaucomatous optic neuropathy.
Predisposing features: older age, female sex, Asian ancestry, hypermetropia, short axial length, shallow anterior chamber, thick lens.

3. Secondary glaucoma

  • Open-angle: pseudoexfoliation, pigment dispersion, steroid-induced, uveitic, traumatic/angle recession, neovascular, lens-particle.
  • Angle-closure: phacomorphic lens, uveitic posterior synechiae with pupillary block, neovascularization, plateau iris, drug induced.
Important: topical, inhaled, oral, or systemic corticosteroids can elevate IOP in steroid responders. Topiramate can cause bilateral secondary angle closure from ciliochoroidal effusion.

4. Congenital/juvenile glaucoma

Due to developmental abnormality of aqueous outflow. Typical infant features:
  • Epiphora
  • Photophobia
  • Blepharospasm
  • Corneal enlargement/clouding
  • Buphthalmos and raised IOP

Clinical features

FeaturePOAGAcute angle-closure glaucoma
OnsetInsidiousSudden
Pain/rednessUsually absentSevere ocular pain, red eye
VisionInitially normal, later peripheral field lossMarked blurred vision, haloes
Systemic symptomsNoneHeadache, nausea, vomiting
CorneaClearHazy due to oedema
PupilNormal earlyMid-dilated, fixed/sluggish
IOPOften raised, may be normalVery high
Anterior chamberDeepShallow
Fellow eyeMay have glaucomaUsually anatomically narrow and at risk

Diagnosis and investigations

Core assessment

  1. Visual acuity
  2. IOP measurement
    • Goldmann applanation tonometry is the clinical reference standard.
    • Interpret IOP in relation to corneal thickness.
  3. Slit-lamp examination
  4. Gonioscopy
    • Determines whether angle is open or closed.
    • Detects PAS, pigmentation, pseudoexfoliative material, neovascularization.
  5. Optic-disc examination
    • Increased cup-disc ratio
    • Asymmetry between eyes
    • Vertical cupping
    • Neuroretinal rim thinning/notching
    • Disc haemorrhage
  6. OCT
    • Retinal nerve fibre layer and ganglion-cell complex thinning.
  7. Automated perimetry
    • Early: paracentral scotoma, nasal step
    • Later: arcuate scotoma, tunnel vision
Typical field defects respect the horizontal meridian.

Gonioscopy angle grading

  • Grade 4: wide open
  • Grade 3: open
  • Grade 2: narrow, potentially occludable
  • Grade 1: very narrow
  • Grade 0: closed
Kanski’s Clinical Ophthalmology, 10th ed., p. 389.

Management principles

  • The objective is to lower IOP to an individualized target pressure and prevent progression.
  • Choice depends on glaucoma type, severity, baseline IOP, progression rate, fellow-eye status, comorbidity, and adherence.
  • Monitor IOP, optic disc/OCT, and visual fields lifelong.

Medical treatment for POAG

Drug groupExamplesMain actionImportant adverse effects/cautions
Prostaglandin analoguesLatanoprost, travoprost, bimatoprostIncrease uveoscleral outflowIris darkening, lash growth, periocular changes, uveitis risk
Beta-blockerTimololReduces aqueous productionAvoid/caution in asthma, COPD, bradycardia, heart block
Alpha-2 agonistBrimonidineReduces production, increases outflowAllergy, dry mouth, fatigue
Carbonic anhydrase inhibitorDorzolamide, brinzolamide; oral acetazolamideReduces aqueous productionStinging; systemic acetazolamide can cause paresthesia, acidosis, renal-stone risk
MioticPilocarpineOpens trabecular meshwork by ciliary muscle contractionMiosis, brow ache, induced myopia; used particularly in pupillary-block angle closure after IOP reduction

Laser treatment

  • Selective laser trabeculoplasty (SLT): improves trabecular outflow in POAG and ocular hypertension. May be first-line or an alternative/addition to drops.
  • Laser peripheral iridotomy (LPI): creates an alternative route for aqueous flow in pupillary-block angle closure. It is indicated in acute angle closure after initial pressure control and usually in the fellow eye if anatomically at risk.
  • Laser iridoplasty: may help plateau iris or persistent appositional angle closure.

Surgery

  • Trabeculectomy: establishes a filtering bleb; effective when target IOP is low or disease progresses despite drops/laser.
  • Glaucoma drainage device/tube shunt: often used in complex or refractory cases.
  • Minimally invasive glaucoma surgery (MIGS): usually offers a more modest IOP reduction, often combined with cataract surgery.
  • Lens extraction: can widen the angle and is important in many angle-closure cases.
The AAO angle-closure guideline provides current guidance for assessment and treatment of primary angle-closure disease.

Acute angle-closure glaucoma: emergency note

Presentation

  • Sudden painful red eye
  • Rapidly reduced vision and coloured haloes
  • Headache, nausea, vomiting
  • Hazy cornea, shallow anterior chamber
  • Mid-dilated poorly reactive pupil
  • Markedly raised IOP

Immediate management

Same-day ophthalmic emergency referral.
Typical specialist management:
  1. Reduce IOP with topical aqueous suppressants.
  2. Give systemic acetazolamide unless contraindicated.
  3. Consider hyperosmotic agent if IOP remains very high.
  4. Topical steroid and analgesia/antiemetic as needed.
  5. Pilocarpine once IOP has fallen enough for iris sphincter function to return.
  6. Definitive laser peripheral iridotomy when cornea is clear enough.
  7. Assess and generally prophylactically treat the fellow eye when appropriate.
Do not miss mimics and secondary causes, especially topiramate-associated bilateral angle closure. This does not respond to LPI in the usual way and requires stopping the causative drug under prescriber guidance plus cycloplegia and pressure-lowering therapy.

High-yield distinctions

  • POAG: open angle, painless, chronic, peripheral field loss.
  • PACG: narrow/closed angle, potentially rapid visual loss.
  • Normal-tension glaucoma: typical glaucomatous disc and field damage despite IOP within statistically normal range.
  • Ocular hypertension: raised IOP without optic-nerve damage or glaucomatous field loss.
  • Glaucoma suspect: suspicious disc, field, IOP, or angle but not enough evidence for definite glaucoma.

One-line exam answer

Glaucoma is a progressive optic neuropathy characterized by retinal nerve fibre loss, optic-disc cupping, and corresponding visual-field defects; management aims to preserve remaining vision through individualized IOP reduction with drops, laser, or surgery.
Recent reviews include a 2025 systematic review of normal-tension glaucoma medical therapy (PMID 39385332) and a 2025 review/meta-analysis of MIGS (PMID 39670502).

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mkdir -p "/tmp/workspace/glaucoma-quick-reference/src" "/tmp/workspace/glaucoma-quick-reference/output" && python - <<'PY' from reportlab.lib.pagesizes import A4 from reportlab.pdfgen import canvas from reportlab.lib.colors import HexColor, white, black from reportlab.pdfbase.pdfmetrics import stringWidth from reportlab.pdfbase.ttfonts import TTFont from reportlab.pdfbase import pdfmetrics from reportlab.lib.units import mm from reportlab.pdfbase.pdfmetrics import stringWidth from reportlab.pdfbase.pdfmetrics import getAscentDescent from reportlab.lib import colors out='/tmp/workspace/glaucoma-quick-reference/output/Glaucoma_Quick_Reference.pdf' W,H=A4 c=canvas.Canvas(out,pagesize=A4) c.setTitle('Glaucoma Quick Reference') c.setAuthor('Orris') # Palette navy=HexColor('#103B4C'); teal=HexColor('#087E8B'); pale=HexColor('#EAF5F5') bluepale=HexColor('#EAF1F7'); red=HexColor('#B23A48'); redpale=HexColor('#FCEBED') gray=HexColor('#45545C'); line=HexColor('#C9D7DB'); green=HexColor('#28664B') M=12*mm; gap=6*mm; usable=W-2*M; col=(usable-gap)/2 def text(x,y,s,size=8,font='Helvetica',color=black): c.setFont(font,size); c.setFillColor(color); c.drawString(x,y,s) def wrap(s,font,size,maxw): words=s.split(); lines=[]; cur='' for word in words: trial=(cur+' '+word).strip() if stringWidth(trial,font,size)<=maxw: cur=trial else: lines.append(cur); cur=word if cur: lines.append(cur) return lines def box(x,top,w,title,items,accent=teal,fill=white,fs=7.4, pad=4.5*mm): # items tuples (heading, body) or plain strings lines=[] for item in items: if isinstance(item,tuple): head,body=item arr=wrap(head+' ', 'Helvetica-Bold',fs,w-2*pad) # structured combined wrapping with first head own first=head+' ' bodylines=wrap(body,'Helvetica',fs,w-2*pad-stringWidth(first,'Helvetica-Bold',fs)) lines.append(('combo',head,bodylines)) else: lines.append(('plain',wrap(item,'Helvetica',fs,w-2*pad))) lh=fs*1.33; height=10*mm for z in lines: if z[0]=='plain': height+=len(z[1])*lh+1.3*mm else: height+=max(1,len(z[2]))*lh+1.3*mm bottom=top-height c.setFillColor(fill); c.roundRect(x,bottom,w,height,3*mm,fill=1,stroke=0) c.setFillColor(accent); c.roundRect(x,bottom,w,5.5*mm,3*mm,fill=1,stroke=0) c.rect(x,bottom,w,height-3*mm,fill=0,stroke=0) text(x+pad,top-4.0*mm,title.upper(),8.2,'Helvetica-Bold',white) y=top-9*mm c.setFillColor(gray) for z in lines: if z[0]=='plain': for i,l in enumerate(z[1]): prefix='• ' if i==0 else ' ' text(x+pad,y,prefix+l,fs,'Helvetica',gray); y-=lh y-=1.3*mm else: head,bodylines=z[1],z[2] text(x+pad,y,'• '+head,fs,'Helvetica-Bold',navy) x2=x+pad+stringWidth('• '+head+' ','Helvetica-Bold',fs) if bodylines: text(x2,y,bodylines[0],fs,'Helvetica',gray) y-=lh for l in bodylines[1:]: text(x+pad+3.6*mm,y,l,fs,'Helvetica',gray); y-=lh y-=1.3*mm return bottom # Header c.setFillColor(navy); c.rect(0,H-31*mm,W,31*mm,fill=1,stroke=0) text(M,H-14*mm,'GLAUCOMA',21,'Helvetica-Bold',white) text(M,H-21*mm,'One-page ophthalmology quick reference',9.2,'Helvetica',HexColor('#D7F1F2')) c.setFillColor(teal); c.roundRect(W-M-52*mm,H-22.5*mm,52*mm,10*mm,5*mm,fill=1,stroke=0) text(W-M-46.5*mm,H-18.7*mm,'PROTECT THE OPTIC NERVE',6.8,'Helvetica-Bold',white) # key strip strip_top=H-35*mm c.setFillColor(pale); c.roundRect(M,strip_top-14*mm,usable,14*mm,3*mm,fill=1,stroke=0) text(M+4*mm,strip_top-5*mm,'CORE:',7.8,'Helvetica-Bold',navy) text(M+18*mm,strip_top-5*mm,'Progressive optic neuropathy: RNFL loss + disc cupping + characteristic field loss.',7.8,'Helvetica',gray) text(M+4*mm,strip_top-10*mm,'GOAL:',7.8,'Helvetica-Bold',navy) text(M+18*mm,strip_top-10*mm,'Preserve remaining vision by lowering IOP to an individual target and monitoring progression.',7.8,'Helvetica',gray) left=M; right=M+col+gap; top=strip_top-18*mm # left column b1=box(left,top,col,'Types at a glance',[ ('POAG','Open angle; chronic, painless, often silent until field loss.'), ('Angle closure','Peripheral iris blocks trabecular meshwork; can be acute or chronic.'), ('Normal-tension','Typical glaucomatous damage despite statistically normal IOP.'), ('Secondary','Pseudoexfoliation, pigment dispersion, steroid response, uveitis, trauma, neovascular or lens-related.'), ('Congenital','Epiphora, photophobia, blepharospasm, large/cloudy cornea.')],teal,white,7.15) b2=box(left,b1-5*mm,col,'POAG: risk factors & clues',[ ('Risk','Age, family history, African ancestry, raised IOP/asymmetry, myopia, thin cornea, vascular risk.'), ('Symptoms','Usually none early. Gradual peripheral field loss; central vision late.'), ('Disc/field','Vertical cupping, rim thinning/notching, disc haemorrhage; nasal step, paracentral or arcuate scotoma.'), ('Key point','An open angle does not exclude glaucoma. Raised IOP is a risk factor, not the diagnosis.')],navy,bluepale,7.15) b3=box(left,b2-5*mm,col,'Assessment',[ ('Examine','VA, pupils, slit lamp, Goldmann IOP, pachymetry, gonioscopy, optic disc.'), ('Document','OCT RNFL/ganglion cell complex and standard automated perimetry.'), ('Gonioscopy','Open vs narrow/closed angle; look for PAS, pigment, pseudoexfoliation, neovascularisation.')],teal,white,7.15) # right column r1=box(right,top,col,'Acute angle closure: emergency',[ ('Think','Sudden painful red eye + blurred vision/haloes + headache, nausea or vomiting.'), ('Signs','Hazy cornea, shallow chamber, mid-dilated poorly reactive pupil, markedly high IOP.'), ('Action','Same-day emergency ophthalmology assessment. Permanent optic-nerve injury can occur rapidly.'), ('Initial specialist care','Topical aqueous suppressants +/- systemic acetazolamide; analgesia/antiemetic; pilocarpine after pressure falls; definitive laser peripheral iridotomy when feasible.'), ('Drug alert','Topiramate can cause bilateral secondary angle closure: stop culprit with prescriber input; management differs from pupillary block.')],red,redpale,7.05) r2=box(right,r1-5*mm,col,'Treatment ladder',[ ('1. Drops','Prostaglandin analogue commonly first-line. Add beta-blocker, alpha-2 agonist or topical CAI as needed.'), ('2. Laser','SLT for open-angle glaucoma/ocular hypertension. LPI for pupillary-block angle closure or at-risk fellow eye.'), ('3. Surgery','Trabeculectomy, tube shunt, or selected MIGS. Lens extraction often helps angle closure.'), ('Follow-up','Check IOP, adherence/adverse effects, disc/OCT and fields. Escalate if progression occurs.')],green,pale,7.15) r3=box(right,r2-5*mm,col,'Drug cautions',[ ('Timolol','Avoid or use caution in asthma/COPD, bradycardia and heart block.'), ('Prostaglandins','May darken iris and increase lashes; caution with active uveitis/herpetic eye disease.'), ('Acetazolamide','Systemic adverse effects include paraesthesia, acidosis and renal-stone risk; check contraindications.')],navy,bluepale,7.15) # footer c.setStrokeColor(line); c.setLineWidth(.4); c.line(M,14*mm,W-M,14*mm) text(M,9.3*mm,'Exam pearl: glaucoma damage is irreversible. Detect early, lower IOP, and assess structure plus function over time.',7.2,'Helvetica-Bold',navy) text(M,5.0*mm,'Educational quick reference. For clinical decisions, use local protocols and specialist ophthalmology advice.',6.2,'Helvetica',gray) text(W-M-74*mm,5.0*mm,'Sources: Kanski Clinical Ophthalmology 10e; AAO PPP.',6.2,'Helvetica',gray) c.showPage(); c.save() print(out) PY python - <<'PY' from pypdf import PdfReader p='/tmp/workspace/glaucoma-quick-reference/output/Glaucoma_Quick_Reference.pdf' r=PdfReader(p) print('pages',len(r.pages),'size',r.pages[0].mediabox) t=r.pages[0].extract_text() print('chars',len(t),'contains emergency', 'EMERGENCY' in t, 'contains glaucoma', 'GLAUCOMA' in t) PY

Glaucoma Quick Reference

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Glaucoma: Quick Reference Notes

Definition

Glaucoma = progressive optic neuropathy causing:
  • Retinal nerve fibre layer loss
  • Optic disc cupping/rim thinning
  • Corresponding visual-field defects
Raised intraocular pressure (IOP) is the major modifiable risk factor, but glaucoma can occur with normal IOP. Visual loss is irreversible.

Aqueous Humour Pathway

Ciliary body -> posterior chamber -> pupil -> anterior chamber -> trabecular meshwork -> Schlemm canal -> episcleral veins.
Raised IOP usually results from reduced aqueous outflow.

Main Types

Primary open-angle glaucoma (POAG)

  • Open anterior chamber angle
  • Chronic, painless, progressive
  • Often asymptomatic until significant visual-field loss
  • Peripheral vision is affected first
Risk factors
  • Increasing age
  • Raised/asymmetric IOP
  • Family history
  • African ancestry
  • Myopia
  • Thin cornea
  • Vascular risk or reduced ocular perfusion
Kanski’s Clinical Ophthalmology, 10th ed., p. 363-364.

Primary angle-closure glaucoma (PACG)

  • Peripheral iris blocks trabecular meshwork
  • Anatomical predisposition: shallow anterior chamber, hypermetropia, short eye, thick lens
  • Can be chronic or acute
  • More common in Asian populations
Spectrum
  • PACS: narrow/occludable angle only
  • PAC: angle closure with raised IOP and/or peripheral anterior synechiae, no optic neuropathy
  • PACG: angle closure plus glaucomatous optic neuropathy

Normal-tension glaucoma

  • Typical disc and field damage despite IOP within the statistically normal range.

Secondary glaucoma

  • Pseudoexfoliation
  • Pigment dispersion
  • Steroid-induced
  • Uveitis
  • Trauma/angle recession
  • Neovascular glaucoma
  • Lens-related glaucoma
  • Drug-induced, especially topiramate-associated angle closure

Congenital glaucoma

Typical infant triad:
  • Epiphora
  • Photophobia
  • Blepharospasm
Also: enlarged/cloudy cornea and buphthalmos.

POAG vs Acute Angle Closure

FeaturePOAGAcute angle closure
OnsetGradualSudden
Pain/rednessUsually absentSevere pain, red eye
VisionGradual peripheral field lossSudden blur, haloes
IOPRaised or normalMarkedly raised
CorneaClearOedematous/hazy
PupilOften normalMid-dilated, poorly reactive
Anterior chamberDeepShallow
SymptomsUsually silentHeadache, nausea, vomiting

Acute Angle Closure: Emergency

Suspect if

Painful red eye + sudden blurred vision/haloes + headache/nausea/vomiting.

Immediate action

  • Urgent same-day ophthalmology referral
  • Lower IOP with topical aqueous suppressants and systemic acetazolamide when appropriate
  • Analgesia and antiemetic
  • Pilocarpine after IOP has fallen sufficiently
  • Definitive treatment: laser peripheral iridotomy (LPI)
  • Evaluate the fellow eye, which may also need prophylactic LPI
The AAO patient guidance identifies acute angle closure as an eye emergency because permanent vision loss can occur without prompt treatment.

Diagnosis

Core assessment

  • Visual acuity
  • IOP measurement, preferably Goldmann applanation tonometry
  • Slit-lamp examination
  • Gonioscopy: open versus narrow/closed angle
  • Optic-disc examination
  • OCT of RNFL/ganglion-cell complex
  • Automated visual-field testing
  • Pachymetry to interpret IOP in the context of corneal thickness

Typical optic disc changes

  • Increased cup-disc ratio or asymmetry
  • Vertical cupping
  • Neuroretinal rim thinning/notching
  • Disc haemorrhage

Typical visual-field defects

  • Paracentral scotoma
  • Nasal step
  • Arcuate scotoma
  • Advanced disease: constricted “tunnel” field

Treatment Goal

Lower IOP to an individualized target pressure and prevent structural or functional progression.

Medical therapy

Drug classExamplesMain actionKey caution
Prostaglandin analogueLatanoprostIncreases uveoscleral outflowIris darkening, lash growth
Beta-blockerTimololReduces aqueous productionAvoid/caution in asthma, bradycardia, heart block
Alpha-2 agonistBrimonidineReduces production, increases outflowAllergy, fatigue
Topical CAIDorzolamideReduces productionLocal irritation
Oral CAIAcetazolamideReduces productionParesthesia, acidosis, renal stones
MioticPilocarpineOpens trabecular pathwayMiosis, brow ache, myopia

Laser

  • SLT: open-angle glaucoma or ocular hypertension
  • LPI: pupillary-block angle closure and selected at-risk eyes
  • Laser iridoplasty: plateau iris/persistent narrow-angle situations

Surgery

  • Trabeculectomy
  • Glaucoma drainage device/tube shunt
  • MIGS in selected cases, often with cataract surgery
  • Lens extraction can widen the angle in angle-closure disease

Exam Pearls

  • Glaucoma diagnosis is based on optic-nerve damage and visual-field loss, not IOP alone.
  • An open angle does not exclude glaucoma.
  • Normal IOP does not exclude glaucoma.
  • Acute angle closure is an ophthalmic emergency.
  • Steroids can cause secondary open-angle glaucoma.
  • Glaucoma requires lifelong monitoring with IOP + optic nerve/OCT + visual fields.

Trachoma opthamology

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trachoma upper tarsal conjunctiva follicles scarring trichiasis clinical photograph

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Trachoma: Quick Reference Notes

Definition

Trachoma is a chronic keratoconjunctivitis caused mainly by Chlamydia trachomatis serovars A, B, Ba, and C. Repeated infection causes conjunctival scarring, entropion, trichiasis, corneal opacity, and irreversible blindness.
It is associated with poverty, overcrowding, poor facial hygiene, inadequate water/sanitation, and eye-seeking flies.
Kanski’s Clinical Ophthalmology, 10th ed., p. 191-192.

Transmission

  • Direct contact with infected ocular/nasal discharge
  • Contaminated fingers, towels, or fomites
  • Eye-seeking flies, especially Musca sorbens
  • Young children are the major reservoir of active infection in endemic communities.

Pathogenesis

Repeated childhood infection -> chronic type IV cell-mediated inflammatory response -> conjunctival fibrosis/scarring -> lid distortion:
Scarring -> entropion -> trichiasis -> corneal abrasion/pannus -> corneal opacity -> blindness

Clinical Stages

1. Active trachoma

Usually occurs in children.
Features
  • Chronic follicular conjunctivitis, mainly upper tarsal conjunctiva
  • Papillary hypertrophy and mucopurulent discharge
  • Superior epithelial keratitis
  • Superior corneal pannus: superficial vascularization of upper cornea

2. Cicatricial trachoma

Usually appears later in life after recurrent infection.
Features
  • Linear/stellate tarsal conjunctival scarring
  • Arlt line: broad horizontal scar on upper tarsal conjunctiva
  • Herbert pits: limbal depressions left by healed follicles
  • Entropion and trichiasis
  • Corneal vascularization and ulceration
  • Corneal opacity and visual loss
  • Dry eye from damage to conjunctival goblet cells and lacrimal ducts
Kanski’s Clinical Ophthalmology, 10th ed., p. 191-192.

WHO Simplified Grading

GradeMeaningClinical definition
TFTrachomatous inflammation, follicularAt least 5 follicles, each >0.5 mm, on superior tarsal conjunctiva
TITrachomatous inflammation, intenseMarked tarsal inflammation obscuring at least 50% of deep tarsal vessels
TSTrachomatous scarringVisible fibrous white tarsal scars
TTTrachomatous trichiasisAt least one eyelash touches the globe
COCorneal opacityOpacity blurs part of the pupillary margin
TF, TT, and CO are particularly important in public-health assessment.
Kanski’s Clinical Ophthalmology, 10th ed., p. 192.

Diagnosis

Usually clinical in endemic settings.
Examine:
  • Upper tarsal conjunctiva after lid eversion
  • Cornea for superior pannus or opacity
  • Lashes and lid position for trichiasis/entropion
  • Visual acuity
Laboratory testing, such as nucleic-acid testing, is generally not required for routine clinical diagnosis in endemic areas.

Management: SAFE Strategy

S - Surgery

  • For trachomatous trichiasis and entropion
  • Prevents continuing lash-induced corneal injury
  • Common operation: bilamellar tarsal rotation

A - Antibiotics

  • Treat active infection and reduce community transmission.
  • Azithromycin 20 mg/kg orally, maximum 1 g, single dose is the standard individual regimen.
  • Alternatives include erythromycin or doxycycline in suitable patients.
  • Avoid tetracyclines in pregnancy/breastfeeding and in young children.

F - Facial cleanliness

  • Regular washing of children’s faces
  • Reduces infected ocular/nasal discharge and fly attraction

E - Environmental improvement

  • Adequate water supply
  • Sanitation and latrines
  • Fly control
  • Reduced crowding where possible
Kanski’s Clinical Ophthalmology, 10th ed., p. 192.
WHO endorses the SAFE strategy for elimination of trachoma as a public-health problem.

High-Yield Exam Points

  • Causative organism: Chlamydia trachomatis A, B, Ba, C
  • Most important site: upper tarsal conjunctiva
  • Pannus begins in the superior cornea
  • Arlt line = tarsal conjunctival scar
  • Herbert pits = healed limbal follicles
  • Blinding complication: trichiasis causing corneal scarring/opacification
  • Treatment/control mnemonic: SAFE
  • Definitive treatment for trichiasis: lid surgery, not antibiotics alone.

Simple

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Trachoma - Simple Notes

  • Trachoma is a chronic eye infection caused by Chlamydia trachomatis.
  • It spreads by dirty hands, eye discharge, towels, and flies.
  • Common in areas with poor hygiene, overcrowding, and inadequate water/sanitation.

Features

  • Red, sticky eye with discharge
  • Follicles on the upper eyelid conjunctiva
  • Repeated infections cause scarring of the eyelid
  • Eyelashes turn inward and rub on the cornea: trichiasis
  • This causes corneal opacity and may lead to blindness

Important signs

  • Arlt line: scar on upper tarsal conjunctiva
  • Herbert pits: healed follicles at the limbus
  • Pannus: blood vessels growing over the upper cornea
  • Trichiasis: lashes touch the eyeball

Treatment: SAFE

  • S - Surgery for trichiasis
  • A - Antibiotics, usually azithromycin
  • F - Facial cleanliness
  • E - Environmental improvement: clean water, sanitation, fly control
Key point: Trachoma blindness is preventable, but corneal scarring once established is irreversible.

Conjunctivitis

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Conjunctivitis - Simple Notes

Conjunctivitis means inflammation of the conjunctiva, the thin membrane covering the white part of the eye and inner eyelids.

Common symptoms

  • Red eye
  • Watering or discharge
  • Grittiness/foreign-body sensation
  • Mild itching or burning
  • Eyelids stuck together on waking

Types

TypeTypical featureDischargeTreatment
ViralOften starts in one eye, may follow a coldWateryHygiene, cold compresses, lubricants
BacterialRed eye with sticky lidsYellow/green pusCleaning; antibiotic drops/ointment may be used when indicated
AllergicItching is the main symptom, often both eyesWatery/stringyAvoid allergen, cold compress, antihistamine/mast-cell stabilizer drops

Viral conjunctivitis

  • Very contagious
  • Often associated with sore throat or common cold
  • Usually settles on its own
  • Do not share towels, pillows, or eye cosmetics

Bacterial conjunctivitis

  • Causes mucopurulent discharge
  • Eyelids may stick together in the morning
  • Common organisms include Staphylococcus, Streptococcus pneumoniae, and Haemophilus influenzae
  • Antibiotics may modestly shorten illness in true bacterial cases, as summarized in a Cochrane review.

Allergic conjunctivitis

  • Not infectious
  • Usually affects both eyes
  • Associated with allergy, asthma, or hay fever
  • Never rub the eyes because it worsens itching

Basic advice

  • Wash hands frequently
  • Clean discharge gently with clean water/cotton
  • Do not share towels or eye drops
  • Stop contact lenses until fully recovered and reviewed if needed
  • Avoid steroid eye drops unless prescribed by an eye specialist

Red flags: urgent eye assessment

Seek urgent care for:
  • Severe eye pain
  • Photophobia
  • Reduced vision
  • Contact-lens wearer with a red painful eye
  • Corneal opacity/white spot
  • Trauma or chemical exposure
  • Copious pus discharge, especially possible gonococcal infection
These features may suggest keratitis, uveitis, acute glaucoma, or another condition rather than simple conjunctivitis.

Management

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Conjunctivitis: Management

General measures for all types

  • Wash hands often.
  • Clean discharge gently with clean water.
  • Do not rub eyes or share towels, pillowcases, cosmetics, or eye drops.
  • Stop contact-lens use until the eye is completely better. Replace/disinfect lenses and lens case before reuse.
  • Use lubricating eye drops and cold compresses for comfort.
  • Avoid steroid eye drops unless prescribed by an ophthalmologist.

Viral conjunctivitis

  • Usually self-limiting.
  • Cold compresses and artificial tears.
  • Strict hand hygiene because it is highly contagious.
  • Antibiotics do not help unless bacterial infection is suspected.

Bacterial conjunctivitis

  • Clean crusting/discharge.
  • Mild cases may resolve without antibiotics.
  • Topical antibiotic drops or ointment may be prescribed if discharge is significant, symptoms persist, or the person is high risk.
  • Contact-lens wearers with red eye need urgent assessment to exclude bacterial keratitis, especially Pseudomonas infection.

Allergic conjunctivitis

  • Avoid allergens and do not rub the eyes.
  • Cold compresses and lubricants.
  • Antihistamine or mast-cell stabilizer eye drops.
  • Treat associated allergic rhinitis if present.

Urgent referral

Refer urgently if there is:
  • Severe pain
  • Reduced vision
  • Photophobia
  • Corneal white spot/opacity
  • Trauma or chemical injury
  • Copious purulent discharge
  • Red painful eye in a contact-lens wearer
  • Suspected herpes eye disease
  • No improvement or worsening despite treatment
These signs suggest conditions such as keratitis, uveitis, or acute glaucoma rather than simple conjunctivitis.
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