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pharmacognosy crude drugs definition classification adulteration evaluation resin volatile oil alkaloids

The library doesn't have a pharmacognosy textbook, so I'll answer all 20 questions from core pharmacognosy knowledge.

PART III — Answers (20 × 1 = 20 marks)

i. Define crude drugs. Crude drugs are naturally occurring, unprocessed or minimally processed substances (plant, animal, or mineral origin) that are used in their dried or fresh state as a source of drugs. They contain active constituents responsible for therapeutic activity.
ii. Name any one method of classification of drugs. Morphological (taxonomical) classification — drugs are classified based on the part of the plant used (leaf, root, bark, seed, flower, etc.). (Other accepted methods: pharmacological, chemical, alphabetical, taxonomical.)
iii. What is adulteration? Adulteration is the intentional or accidental substitution, admixture, or replacement of a crude drug with an inferior, substandard, or entirely different substance to reduce cost or increase weight, thereby reducing quality and therapeutic value.
iv. Name one alkaloid-containing drug. Opium (Papaver somniferum) — contains morphine and codeine (opium alkaloids).
v. Name one example of a laxative drug. Senna (Cassia senna/angustifolia) — contains anthraquinone glycosides (sennosides) that act as stimulant laxatives.
vi. Give one example of a cardiotonic crude drug. Digitalis (Digitalis purpurea) — contains cardiac glycosides (digitoxin, digoxin) with positive inotropic action.
vii. What is volatile oil? Volatile oils (also called essential oils) are odorous, volatile mixtures of chemical compounds (terpenes, phenylpropanoids) found in plant secretory structures. They evaporate readily at room temperature and are soluble in organic solvents but sparingly soluble in water.
viii. Name one plant fibre used as surgical dressings. Cotton (Gossypium herbaceum) — purified cotton wool (absorbent cotton) is widely used as surgical dressing material.
ix. What is Ayurveda? Ayurveda is the ancient Indian system of medicine ("science of life") based on the principles of tridosha (Vata, Pitta, Kapha). It uses plant, animal, and mineral substances for prevention and treatment of disease, and is one of the oldest codified medical systems in the world.
x. What are prebiotics? Prebiotics are non-digestible dietary fiber components (e.g., inulin, fructooligosaccharides) that selectively stimulate the growth and/or activity of beneficial microorganisms (probiotics) in the colon, thereby conferring a health benefit on the host.
xi. Name herbal cosmetic ingredients. Aloe vera gel — used in skin moisturizers, sunscreens, and wound-healing cosmetics. (Other examples: turmeric, neem, henna, sandalwood, rose water.)
xii. What is evaluation of crude drug? Evaluation of a crude drug is the process of determining its identity, purity, quality, and potency using biological, chemical, physical, and microscopic methods. It ensures the drug conforms to pharmacopoeial standards and is free from adulteration.
xiii. Name one anti-malarial crude drug. Cinchona bark (Cinchona officinalis) — contains quinine, a classical anti-malarial alkaloid.
xiv. What is resin? Resins are amorphous, solid or semi-solid, complex mixtures of oxidation or polymerization products of terpenes. They are insoluble in water, soluble in organic solvents, and are produced in resin ducts or canals of plants (e.g., colophony from Pinus species, asafoetida).
xv. Name one pharmaceutical aid. Tragacanth — a natural gum used as a suspending agent and emulsifying agent in pharmaceutical formulations. (Other examples: acacia, talc, starch, gelatin.)
xvi. Define homeopathy. Homeopathy is a system of alternative medicine developed by Samuel Hahnemann, based on the principle "similia similibus curantur" (like cures like). It uses highly diluted preparations (potentized) of substances that in large doses would cause symptoms similar to the disease being treated.
xvii. What is phytochemical investigation? Phytochemical investigation is the systematic study of the chemical constituents (phytoconstituents) present in plants using extraction, isolation, characterization, and identification techniques to discover biologically active compounds for medicinal, nutritional, or industrial use.
xviii. Name one anti-diabetic crude drug. Karela (Bitter gourd) — Momordica charantia — contains charantin and polypeptide-P, which lower blood glucose levels. (Also accepted: Gymnema sylvestre, Fenugreek/Trigonella foenum-graecum.)
xix. Define pharmacognosy. Pharmacognosy is the branch of pharmaceutical science that deals with the study of crude drugs of natural origin (plant, animal, and mineral). It covers their biological, biochemical, chemical, and physical properties, history, commerce, collection, preparation, and therapeutic use. (Defined by Seydler, 1815.)
xx. What is a cosmeceutical? A cosmeceutical is a hybrid product at the boundary between cosmetics and pharmaceuticals — it is applied topically like a cosmetic but contains biologically active ingredients (e.g., retinoids, alpha-hydroxy acids, peptides) that exert a therapeutic or drug-like effect on the skin beyond mere beautification.
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PART - I (Attempt any SIX) — 6×5 = 30 marks

a. Discuss various systems of classification of crude drugs in detail.
Crude drugs are classified by the following systems:
  1. Alphabetical — drugs arranged in A–Z order (e.g., British Pharmacopoeia). Easy to locate but no scientific basis.
  2. Morphological (Taxonomical) — based on the part of plant used: root (ginger), bark (cinchona), leaf (senna), seed (nux vomica), fruit (coriander), flower (clove). Simple and practical.
  3. Pharmacological — based on therapeutic action: laxatives, cardiotonics, analgesics, anthelmintics. Useful clinically.
  4. Chemical — based on chief active constituent: alkaloids (opium), glycosides (digitalis), tannins (catechu), resins (colophony), volatile oils (clove oil). Most scientific.
  5. Taxonomical (Biological) — based on plant family: Solanaceae, Leguminosae, Papaveraceae. Helps predict chemical constituents.
  6. Chemo-taxonomical — combines chemical and taxonomical classification.
b. Explain method of evaluation of crude drugs.
Evaluation confirms identity, purity, quality, and potency:
  1. Organoleptic evaluation — colour, odour, taste, texture by sensory organs (e.g., saffron — deep orange, honey-like odour).
  2. Microscopic evaluation — powder and transverse section microscopy to identify characteristic cells (e.g., calcium oxalate crystals, trichomes, starch grains).
  3. Physical evaluation — moisture content, ash values (total ash, acid-insoluble ash, water-soluble ash), extractive values, specific gravity, optical rotation, refractive index.
  4. Chemical evaluation — qualitative and quantitative tests; titration, HPLC, TLC, UV-Vis spectrophotometry to determine active constituents.
  5. Biological evaluation (Bioassay) — tests biological activity on animals or isolated tissues (e.g., digitalis bioassay on frog heart).
  6. Adulteration detection — chemical tests, microscopy, physical methods to detect substitutes or adulterants.
c. Give a detailed account of alkaloids and their therapeutic potential.
Definition: Alkaloids are basic nitrogenous compounds of plant origin, mostly heterocyclic, bitter in taste, optically active, and physiologically active.
Properties: Sparingly soluble in water (as free base); soluble as salts; alkaline reaction; precipitated by general alkaloid reagents (Mayer's, Dragendorff's, Wagner's).
Classification:
ClassExampleDrug Source
Pyridine-piperidineNicotine, LobelineTobacco, Lobelia
TropaneAtropine, CocaineBelladonna, Coca
QuinolineQuinineCinchona
IsoquinolineMorphine, CodeineOpium
IndoleErgotamine, ReserpineErgot, Rauwolfia
XanthineCaffeine, TheophyllineCoffee, Tea
SteroidalSolasodineSolanum
Therapeutic uses:
  • Morphine — analgesic (narcotic)
  • Quinine — anti-malarial
  • Atropine — anticholinergic, mydriatic
  • Codeine — antitussive
  • Caffeine — CNS stimulant
  • Reserpine — antihypertensive
  • Vincristine — anti-cancer
  • Colchicine — anti-gout
d. Discuss biological source and chemical constituents and uses of Digitalis and Cinchona.
Digitalis:
  • Biological source: Dried leaves of Digitalis purpurea (Foxglove); family Scrophulariaceae.
  • Chemical constituents: Cardiac glycosides — digitoxin, digoxin, gitoxin; also saponins, digitalinum verum.
  • Uses: Congestive heart failure (positive inotropic — increases myocardial contractility); atrial fibrillation and flutter (slows heart rate via vagal stimulation); anti-arrhythmic.
Cinchona:
  • Biological source: Dried bark of Cinchona officinalis, C. succirubra, C. calisaya; family Rubiaceae.
  • Chemical constituents: Quinoline alkaloids — quinine (major), quinidine, cinchonine, cinchonidine; tannins (cinchotannic acid).
  • Uses:
    • Quinine — anti-malarial (chloroquine-resistant malaria), antipyretic, analgesic
    • Quinidine — anti-arrhythmic (Class IA)
    • Cinchona tincture — bitter tonic, appetite stimulant
e. Explain preparation methods of Ayurvedic formulations (Asava, Arishta, Bhasma).
Asava:
  • Prepared by fermentation of fresh herbal juices or decoctions with sugar/jaggery and Dhataki flowers (natural yeast) in closed earthen pots for 1–3 months.
  • Self-generated alcohol acts as preservative and extraction medium.
  • Example: Kumaryasava (from Aloe vera) — liver tonic, digestive.
Arishta:
  • Similar to Asava but prepared from decoctions (kwatha) of herbs, not fresh juice.
  • Undergoes fermentation with sugar and Dhataki flowers.
  • Example: Dashamularishta — nervine tonic, post-partum care; Arjunarishta — cardiac tonic.
  • Difference: Asava = fresh juice/water + fermentation; Arishta = boiled decoction + fermentation.
Bhasma:
  • Ayurvedic calcined preparations of metals, minerals, or animal products.
  • Prepared by shodhana (purification) → bhavana (trituration with herbal juices) → puta (incineration in fire pits) — repeated multiple times.
  • Result: ultra-fine, nano-particle ash with enhanced bioavailability.
  • Example: Swarna Bhasma (gold) — rejuvenator, immunomodulator; Lauha Bhasma (iron) — anaemia; Tamra Bhasma (copper) — liver disorders.
f. Discuss neutraceuticals and their therapeutic importance with examples.
Definition: Nutraceuticals are food or food components that provide medical or health benefits beyond basic nutrition, including prevention and treatment of disease. Term coined by Stephen DeFelice (1989).
Classification:
  1. Dietary supplements — vitamins, minerals, amino acids
  2. Functional foods — fortified foods (e.g., omega-3 enriched eggs)
  3. Medicinal foods — specially formulated for disease management
  4. Phytochemicals — plant-derived bioactives
Examples and therapeutic importance:
NutraceuticalSourceTherapeutic Use
Omega-3 fatty acidsFish oil, flaxseedCardiovascular protection, anti-inflammatory
LycopeneTomatoAntioxidant, anti-prostate cancer
CurcuminTurmericAnti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-cancer
ResveratrolGrapesCardioprotective, anti-aging
GlucosamineShellfishOsteoarthritis management
Probiotics (Lactobacillus)YoghurtGut health, immunity
Beta-glucanOatsCholesterol lowering
QuercetinOnion, appleAntioxidant, anti-allergic
Importance: Preventive healthcare, reduced drug side effects, cost-effective, supports immunity and chronic disease management.
g. Explain phytochemical investigation techniques of crude drugs.
Phytochemical investigation involves systematic extraction, isolation, and identification of chemical constituents:
Steps:
  1. Collection and authentication — correct botanical identification of plant material.
  2. Drying and powdering — reduces moisture, increases surface area.
  3. Extraction — successive solvent extraction using solvents of increasing polarity: petroleum ether (fats, waxes) → chloroform (alkaloids) → ethanol (glycosides, flavonoids) → water (tannins, sugars).
  4. Preliminary phytochemical screening (qualitative tests):
    • Alkaloids: Mayer's, Dragendorff's, Wagner's tests
    • Glycosides: Keller-Kiliani, Legal's test
    • Flavonoids: Shinoda test
    • Tannins: FeCl₃ test
    • Saponins: Foam test
    • Steroids: Liebermann–Burchard test
  5. Chromatographic separation: TLC, column chromatography, HPLC, GC-MS to isolate pure compounds.
  6. Spectroscopic identification: UV, IR, NMR, Mass Spectrometry to determine molecular structure.
  7. Biological activity testing: In vitro and in vivo bioassays.

PART - II (Attempt any TEN) — 10×3 = 30 marks

i. Explain history and scope of pharmacognosy.
History:
  • Term coined by C.A. Seydler in 1815 (Analecta Pharmacognostica).
  • Ancient use: Ayurveda (Charaka Samhita, ~1000 BC), Unani, Egyptian papyri.
  • Dioscorides' De Materia Medica (1st century AD) — described ~600 plants.
  • 19th century — isolation of pure alkaloids (morphine 1803, quinine 1820).
  • Modern era: WHO promotes traditional medicine; ethnopharmacology, phytotherapy.
Scope:
  1. Study of medicinal plants (identification, cultivation, collection)
  2. Isolation and characterization of active constituents
  3. Nutraceuticals and cosmeceuticals
  4. Quality control and standardization of herbal drugs
  5. Ethnopharmacology and folk medicine
  6. Drug discovery from natural sources
  7. Marine pharmacognosy (drugs from sea organisms)
  8. Biotechnological production (plant cell culture)
ii. Describe alphabetical and morphological classification of drugs.
Alphabetical: Drugs arranged in A–Z order. Used in pharmacopoeias (BP, USP) for easy reference. No scientific rationale. Example: Acacia, Belladonna, Cinchona, Digitalis...
Morphological: Based on the plant part used:
  • Roots/Rhizomes: Ginger, Rauwolfia, Ipecacuanha
  • Barks: Cinchona, Cinnamon
  • Leaves: Senna, Belladonna, Datura
  • Seeds: Nux vomica, Linseed, Castor
  • Fruits: Coriander, Fennel, Caraway
  • Flowers: Clove, Pyrethrum
  • Whole plant: Ergot, Digitalis
iii. Explain types of adulteration in crude drugs.
  1. Substitution with inferior/spurious drugs — cheaper look-alike replaces genuine drug (e.g., wild senna for genuine senna).
  2. Substitution with exhausted drugs — drug from which active principle has already been extracted (e.g., exhausted cloves — volatile oil removed).
  3. Admixture of foreign matter — sand, stones, dust, soil mixed to increase weight.
  4. Sophisticated adulteration — difficult to detect; e.g., artificial coloring of inferior saffron, starch added to powders.
  5. Deterioration — drug damaged by improper storage (moisture, heat, light) leading to decomposition of actives.
  6. Admixture of harmful substances — toxic metals in herbal preparations.
iv. Write a note on glycosides with examples.
Glycosides are compounds in which a sugar (glycone) is attached to a non-sugar moiety (aglycone/genin) via a glycosidic bond (O-, N-, C-, or S-linkage). Hydrolysis releases sugar + aglycone.
Classification by aglycone:
TypeExampleDrugUse
Cardiac glycosidesDigitoxinDigitalisHeart failure
AnthraquinoneSennosideSennaLaxative
SaponinsGlycyrrhizinLiquoriceExpectorant
CyanogeneticAmygdalinBitter almondAnti-cancer (laetrile)
ThioglucosidesSinigrinBlack mustardRubefacient
FlavonoidRutinBuckwheatCapillary fragility
IridoidAucubinPlantagoBitter tonic
v. Describe senna and its uses.
  • Botanical name: Cassia senna (Alexandrian) / Cassia angustifolia (Tinnevelly); Family: Leguminosae.
  • Parts used: Leaves and pods (fruits).
  • Chemical constituents: Anthraquinone glycosides — sennoside A and B (major), sennoside C and D; also rhein, aloe-emodin, chrysophanol.
  • Mechanism: Sennosides converted by colonic bacteria to rhein-anthrone → stimulates peristalsis, reduces water absorption in large intestine.
  • Uses:
    • Stimulant laxative — constipation
    • Bowel preparation before colonoscopy/surgery
    • Available as syrup, tablet, granules
  • Dose: 0.5–2g of leaf; acts in 6–8 hours.
vi. Explain uses of Rauwolfia.
  • Botanical name: Rauwolfia serpentina; Family: Apocynaceae.
  • Part used: Dried root.
  • Chemical constituents: Indole alkaloids — reserpine (major), rescinnamine, ajmaline, serpentine, yohimbine.
  • Uses:
    • Reserpine — antihypertensive (depletes catecholamines from nerve terminals); sedative, tranquilizer.
    • Ajmaline — anti-arrhythmic (Class IA).
    • Historically: used in Ayurveda for snake bite, hypertension, insomnia (known as "sarpagandha").
    • Psychiatric disorders (mild sedation).
  • Adverse effects: Depression, nasal congestion, peptic ulcer (due to reserpine).
vii. Write a note on surgical sutures.
Surgical sutures are threads used to hold body tissues together after surgery or injury.
Classification:
  1. By absorption:
    • Absorbable: Catgut (plain & chromic — collagen from sheep intestine), polyglycolic acid (Dexon), polyglactin (Vicryl).
    • Non-absorbable: Silk, cotton, nylon, polypropylene, stainless steel.
  2. By origin:
    • Natural: Catgut, silk, cotton, linen.
    • Synthetic: Nylon, Dacron, Prolene.
  3. By structure:
    • Monofilament: Single strand — less infection risk.
    • Multifilament (braided): Stronger, easier to handle.
Pharmacognostic significance: Cotton and silk are plant-derived crude drug fibres used as suture materials.
viii. Explain the principle of Unani system.
  • Unani (Greco-Arabic) medicine originated from Greek physician Hippocrates, developed by Galen, Ibn Sina (Avicenna — Canon of Medicine).
  • Principle: Based on four humours (Akhlat):
    1. Dam (Blood) — hot and moist
    2. Balgham (Phlegm) — cold and moist
    3. Safra (Yellow bile) — hot and dry
    4. Sauda (Black bile) — cold and dry
  • Health = balance of humours; Disease = imbalance.
  • Treatment (Ilaj): Regimental therapy, dietotherapy, pharmacotherapy (natural drugs), surgery.
  • Drugs used: Plant (majority), animal, and mineral origin.
  • Regulatory body in India: CCRUM (Central Council for Research in Unani Medicine).
ix. Describe role of medicinal plants in national economy.
  1. Foreign exchange earnings — India exports crude drugs (senna, opium, belladonna, psyllium) worth crores annually.
  2. Raw material for pharmaceutical industry — alkaloids, glycosides, resins as starting materials for drug synthesis.
  3. Employment generation — cultivation, collection, processing, and trade of medicinal plants supports rural livelihoods.
  4. Reduced healthcare cost — herbal medicines are affordable alternatives to synthetic drugs.
  5. Biodiversity conservation — promotes cultivation and sustainable use of wild plants.
  6. Ayurvedic and Unani industry — large domestic market (e.g., Dabur, Himalaya, Zandu).
  7. International demand — growing global herbal medicine market (>$100 billion).
  8. India as major supplier — India supplies ~70% of world's medicinal plant demand (WHO data).
x. Explain applications of antioxidants.
Antioxidants neutralize free radicals (reactive oxygen species) by donating electrons, thereby preventing oxidative damage.
Applications:
  1. Pharmaceutical — prevent oxidative degradation of drugs (e.g., Vitamin E in oil-based formulations; BHA, BHT as preservatives).
  2. Food industry — prevent rancidity of fats and oils; extend shelf life (ascorbic acid, tocopherols).
  3. Therapeutic — Vitamin C, Vitamin E, beta-carotene, selenium — protect against cardiovascular disease, cancer, aging, diabetes.
  4. Cosmetics — prevent oxidation of creams and lotions; anti-aging skin products (Vitamin C serum, retinol).
  5. Plant-derived antioxidants — curcumin (turmeric), quercetin (onion), resveratrol (grapes), green tea catechins — nutraceutical applications.
  6. Industrial — prevent rubber and plastic oxidation.
xi. Describe sources and uses of Aloe vera in cosmetics.
  • Botanical name: Aloe barbadensis (syn. Aloe vera); Family: Liliaceae.
  • Part used: Leaf gel (inner parenchyma) and latex (dried exudate — aloin).
  • Chemical constituents:
    • Gel: Polysaccharides (acemannan), enzymes, vitamins (A, C, E, B12), amino acids, minerals.
    • Latex: Anthraquinone glycosides (aloin/barbaloin), aloe-emodin.
Cosmetic uses:
  1. Moisturizer — gel is humectant; retains skin moisture.
  2. Sunscreen/after-sun lotion — soothes UV-damaged skin, reduces erythema.
  3. Anti-aging creams — stimulates collagen synthesis, reduces wrinkles.
  4. Acne treatment — anti-inflammatory, antibacterial properties.
  5. Hair care — shampoos and conditioners; reduces dandruff, promotes hair growth.
  6. Wound healing gels — minor burns, abrasions.
  7. Shaving gels and aftershaves — soothing, anti-irritant.
  8. Lip balms — moisturizing and healing.
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