Kidney stones

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Searching for a comprehensive overview of kidney stones across types, diagnosis, and management.

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kidney stones nephrolithiasis etiology types pathophysiology

Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine, Twenty First Edition

Page 8691

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nephrolithiasis diagnosis management treatment

Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine, Twenty First Edition

Page 8691

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kidney stone CT scan imaging types

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Here is a comprehensive overview of kidney stones (nephrolithiasis):

Kidney Stones (Nephrolithiasis)

Overview

Nephrolithiasis is a common, painful, and costly condition in which crystals of lithogenic material aggregate in the upper urinary tract. Stones can migrate into the ureter, causing renal colic — widely reported as among the worst pain a patient can experience. While rarely fatal, it carries significant morbidity and economic burden. (Harrison's, p. 8691)

Stone Types

Type	Frequency	Key Associations
Calcium oxalate	~75%	Hypercalciuria, hyperoxaluria, hypocitraturia
Calcium phosphate	~15%	Renal tubular acidosis, hyperparathyroidism
Uric acid	~8%	Gout, low urine pH, metabolic syndrome
Struvite	~1%	Urease-producing bacteria (e.g., Proteus), UTIs
Cystine	<1%	Cystinuria (autosomal recessive)
Drug-induced	Rare	Acyclovir, atazanavir, triamterene

Many stones are mixed (e.g., calcium oxalate + calcium phosphate). (Harrison's, p. 8691)

⚠️ Struvite (infection) stones can lead to end-stage renal disease if not adequately treated.

Risk Factors

Low urine volume (dehydration) — the single most modifiable risk factor
High dietary sodium, animal protein, oxalate (spinach, nuts, chocolate)
Low dietary calcium (paradoxically increases oxalate absorption)
Obesity, metabolic syndrome, type 2 diabetes (→ uric acid stones)
Inflammatory bowel disease / bowel resection (→ hyperoxaluria)
Hyperparathyroidism (→ hypercalciuria)
Recurrent UTIs with urease-producing organisms (→ struvite)

Clinical Presentation

Renal colic: severe, cramping, colicky flank pain radiating to the groin ("loin to groin")
Nausea, vomiting
Hematuria (gross or microscopic) — present in ~85% of cases
Dysuria, urgency if stone is at the ureterovesical junction
Fever/chills if concurrent infection (urological emergency)

Diagnosis

Imaging

Non-contrast CT of the abdomen/pelvis is the gold standard — detects virtually all stone types, determines size and location.

Axial CT images in a 66-year-old male showing an 11×5 mm left renal pelvis stone. Image A: standard non-contrast CT with hyperattenuating stone (red star). Image B: dual-energy CT (DE-CT) color-coded to show uric acid composition (red) vs. bone (blue). DE-CT allows chemical composition analysis without surgery.

Ultrasound: preferred in pregnancy and children; lower sensitivity for small stones
Plain X-ray (KUB): only detects radiopaque stones (calcium-based); misses uric acid and cystine stones

Labs

Urinalysis: hematuria, crystalluria, pH (low pH → uric acid; high pH → struvite/calcium phosphate)
BMP/CMP: creatinine, calcium, uric acid
24-hour urine collection (in recurrent stone formers): volume, calcium, oxalate, citrate, uric acid, sodium, pH
Serum PTH if hypercalcemia is present

Management

Acute

Situation	Action
Stone ≤5 mm	Medical expulsive therapy (MET): alpha-blockers (tamsulosin) + hydration + analgesia; ~80% pass spontaneously
Stone 5–10 mm	MET with close follow-up; ~50% pass spontaneously
Stone >10 mm	Likely requires intervention
Fever + obstruction	Urgent urology consult — infected obstructed kidney is a surgical emergency
Solitary kidney, bilateral obstruction, acute kidney injury	Urgent intervention

Analgesia: NSAIDs (ketorolac) are first-line; opioids for refractory pain.

Interventional

Shockwave lithotripsy (SWL): non-invasive; preferred for renal stones <2 cm
Ureteroscopy (URS) with laser lithotripsy: highly effective for ureteral stones
Percutaneous nephrolithotomy (PCNL): large stones (>2 cm) or staghorn calculi

Prevention (Stone-Type Specific)

Universal: Increase fluid intake to produce >2.5 L urine/day.

Stone Type	Targeted Prevention
Calcium oxalate	Thiazide diuretics (↓ urinary calcium), potassium citrate (↑ citrate, ↑ pH), low-sodium/low-protein diet
Uric acid	Potassium citrate or sodium bicarbonate (alkalinize urine to pH 6.5–7), allopurinol if hyperuricosuria
Struvite	Complete stone removal + treat underlying infection; acetohydroxamic acid in refractory cases
Cystine	High fluid intake, alkalinization; D-penicillamine or tiopronin for refractory cases
Calcium phosphate	Thiazides, low-sodium diet; address underlying RTA or hyperparathyroidism

Recurrence prevention should be personalized based on 24-hour urine metabolic workup and may be lifelong. (Harrison's, p. 8691)

Complications

Urinary obstruction → hydronephrosis → AKI
Urosepsis (infected obstructed system)
Chronic kidney disease with recurrent/bilateral disease
Chronic pain, reduced quality of life

Bottom line: Kidney stones are highly recurrent (~50% recurrence within 5–10 years without intervention), but recurrence is largely preventable with a proper metabolic workup and targeted dietary/pharmacologic measures tailored to stone type.

Can you make a diagnosis

I need a bit more information to help with a diagnosis. Could you tell me:

What symptoms are you or the patient experiencing? (e.g., flank pain, blood in urine, nausea, fever)
Where is the pain, if any? Does it radiate anywhere?
Any relevant history — prior kidney stones, recent imaging, lab results, medical conditions?
Any current medications or recent procedures?

The more detail you provide, the more useful I can be.

Pain in the big toe hurts while walking

This doesn't sound like kidney stones. The symptom you're describing — pain in the big toe that hurts while walking — is a classic presentation of gout.

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Searching for gout diagnosis, presentation, and management — including its link to uric acid and kidney stones.

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gout podagra big toe diagnosis clinical presentation

Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine, Twenty First Edition

Page 10430

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gout hyperuricemia treatment management acute flare

Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine, Twenty First Edition

Page 10429

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gout podagra big toe swelling imaging

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Likely Diagnosis: Gout (Podagra)

The big toe is the most classic site for gout. The metatarsophalangeal (MTP) joint of the first toe is involved in 70–90% of cases, a presentation specifically called podagra. (Harrison's, p. 10430)

What Is Gout?

Gout is caused by chronic hyperuricemia (elevated uric acid in the blood), leading to the deposition of monosodium urate (MSU) crystals in joints. When crystals shed into the joint space, they trigger intense inflammation — an acute gout flare. (Harrison's, p. 10429)

This also connects to what was discussed earlier: high uric acid causes both gout and uric acid kidney stones.

Classic Features That Point to Gout

Feature	Details
Location	First MTP joint (big toe) — most common site
Pain onset	Often starts at night or early morning
Joint appearance	Warm, red, tender, swollen — can mimic cellulitis
Duration	Flares typically resolve in 1–2 weeks on their own
Pattern	Attacks then symptom-free intervals (intercritical gout)

Imaging in Chronic Gout

X-ray and CT of the right first MTP joint in a 60-year-old male with chronic gout. Shows classic "punched-out" erosions with overhanging edges and a dense tophus (MSU crystal deposit) at the joint. CT reveals faint calcifications within the tophus.

In early/acute gout, imaging may be normal. These findings develop with chronic, recurrent disease.

How to Confirm the Diagnosis

Serum uric acid — often elevated, but can be normal during an acute flare
Joint aspiration (arthrocentesis) — gold standard; shows needle-shaped, negatively birefringent MSU crystals under polarized light microscopy
Ultrasound — can show "double contour sign" (urate coating cartilage)
X-ray — normal early; punched-out erosions in chronic disease

Treatment

Acute Flare

NSAIDs (e.g., indomethacin, naproxen) — first-line
Colchicine — very effective if started early (within 24–36 hours of onset)
Corticosteroids (oral prednisone or intra-articular injection) — if NSAIDs/colchicine are contraindicated

Long-Term (Urate-Lowering Therapy)

Started after the acute flare resolves, indicated for recurrent attacks, tophi, or uric acid kidney stones:

Allopurinol — first-line; inhibits xanthine oxidase to reduce uric acid production
Febuxostat — alternative xanthine oxidase inhibitor
Probenecid — increases renal uric acid excretion (avoid if kidney stones present)

Target serum uric acid: <6 mg/dL (or <5 mg/dL with tophi)

Lifestyle

Reduce red meat, organ meats, shellfish, alcohol (especially beer)
Stay well hydrated
Avoid fructose-sweetened beverages
Lose weight if overweight

Important note: This is a clinical assessment based on the symptoms described. A formal diagnosis requires examination and likely blood work or joint fluid analysis by a healthcare provider. If the toe is also red, warm, and swollen — especially with fever — see a doctor promptly to rule out a joint infection (septic arthritis), which is a medical emergency.

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