# MUHS 1st MBBS Practice Question Papers (2021-2025)
# Modeled on MUHS exam format: 2 LAQ (10 marks each) + 10 SAQ (5 marks each) + 10 BAQ (2 marks each) = 100 marks
# Sessions: W = Winter/Regular, S = Summer/Supplementary

PAPERS = {

# ══════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════
# ANATOMY  PAPER  I
# Covers: General Anatomy, Upper Limb, Lower Limb, Thorax
# ══════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════

"ANATOMY_P1_2025_W": {
    "subject": "ANATOMY", "paper": "PAPER I", "year": 2025, "session": "Winter (Regular)",
    "code": "01111A",
    "syllabus": "General Anatomy, Upper Limb, Lower Limb, Thorax",
    "LAQ": [
        "Describe the brachial plexus under the following headings: (a) Formation and roots (b) Branches from roots, trunks, and cords (c) Axillary nerve — origin, course, distribution, and injury effects",
        "Describe the femoral triangle: (a) Boundaries and floor (b) Contents and their arrangement (c) Femoral sheath — formation and compartments (d) Clinical importance"
    ],
    "SAQ": [
        "Describe the cubital fossa — boundaries, roof, floor, and contents",
        "Explain carpal tunnel syndrome — anatomy of the tunnel and structures compressed",
        "Write a note on axillary lymph nodes — groups and areas drained",
        "Describe the popliteal fossa — boundaries and contents",
        "Write a note on the medial longitudinal arch of the foot",
        "Describe the clavipectoral fascia and structures piercing it",
        "Explain Erb's palsy — nerve injured, cause, and deformity",
        "Write a note on the knee joint — type, articular surfaces, and menisci",
        "Describe intercostal space — contents and neurovascular bundle arrangement",
        "Write a note on the diaphragm — attachments, openings, and nerve supply"
    ],
    "BAQ": [
        "Define dermatome and myotome",
        "Name the contents of the carpal tunnel",
        "What is carrying angle of the elbow?",
        "Name the rotator cuff muscles",
        "What is anatomical snuff box and its contents?",
        "Name the boundaries of the axilla",
        "What is Z-line in skeletal muscle?",
        "Name the bones forming the ankle mortise",
        "Define synovial joint and give one example",
        "Name the branches of the femoral nerve in the femoral triangle"
    ]
},

"ANATOMY_P1_2025_S": {
    "subject": "ANATOMY", "paper": "PAPER I", "year": 2025, "session": "Summer (Supplementary)",
    "code": "01111A",
    "syllabus": "General Anatomy, Upper Limb, Lower Limb, Thorax",
    "LAQ": [
        "Describe the hip joint under the following headings: (a) Type and articular surfaces (b) Ligaments (c) Nerve supply and blood supply (d) Movements and muscles producing them (e) Relations and applied anatomy",
        "Describe the axillary artery: (a) Origin and parts (b) Branches of each part (c) Anastomoses around the scapula (d) Applied anatomy"
    ],
    "SAQ": [
        "Write a note on Klumpke's palsy — nerve injured, cause, and deformity",
        "Describe the adductor canal — boundaries and contents",
        "Write a note on the pes anserinus and its clinical significance",
        "Describe the shoulder joint — type, capsule, and reinforcing ligaments",
        "Write a note on saphenous nerve — origin, course, and distribution",
        "Describe the thoracic cage — bony framework and its functions",
        "Write a note on the long thoracic nerve — origin and injury (winging of scapula)",
        "Describe the radial nerve in the spiral groove — injury effects",
        "Write a note on great saphenous vein — course and tributaries",
        "Describe the pleural recesses and their clinical importance"
    ],
    "BAQ": [
        "Name the muscles of the thenar eminence",
        "What is Saturday night palsy?",
        "Name the extensor compartment muscles of the leg",
        "Define bursa and give an example",
        "Name the ligaments of the ankle joint",
        "What is the unhappy triad of the knee?",
        "Name the sesamoid bones in the body",
        "Define fascia and its types",
        "Name the flexor muscles of the forearm (superficial group)",
        "What is the function of the iliopsoas muscle?"
    ]
},

"ANATOMY_P1_2024_W": {
    "subject": "ANATOMY", "paper": "PAPER I", "year": 2024, "session": "Winter (Regular)",
    "code": "01111A",
    "syllabus": "General Anatomy, Upper Limb, Lower Limb, Thorax",
    "LAQ": [
        "Describe the axilla under the following headings: (a) Boundaries — apex, base, anterior, posterior, medial, lateral walls (b) Contents (c) Axillary sheath (d) Applied anatomy",
        "Describe the knee joint: (a) Type and articular surfaces (b) Capsule and synovial membrane (c) Ligaments — intra-articular and extra-articular (d) Bursae (e) Movements and muscles producing them"
    ],
    "SAQ": [
        "Write a note on the ulnar nerve at the wrist — structures it supplies and injury effects",
        "Describe the femoral sheath — formation, compartments, and contents",
        "Write a note on popliteal artery — origin, course, and branches",
        "Describe the first rib — features and structures related to it",
        "Write a note on the median nerve in the arm and forearm",
        "Describe the obturator nerve — origin, course, and distribution",
        "Write a note on the breast — structure, blood supply, and lymphatic drainage",
        "Describe the cruciate ligaments of the knee — attachment and function",
        "Write a note on the patella — features and articulations",
        "Describe the subclavian artery — origin, parts, and branches"
    ],
    "BAQ": [
        "Name the muscles supplied by the deep branch of ulnar nerve in the hand",
        "What is Dupuytren's contracture?",
        "Name the bones forming the palm",
        "Define the carrying angle",
        "Name the ligaments of the hip joint",
        "What is the Q-angle of the knee?",
        "Name the contents of the popliteal fossa",
        "Define epiphysis and apophysis",
        "Name the muscles of the posterior compartment of the thigh",
        "What is Langer's line?"
    ]
},

"ANATOMY_P1_2024_S": {
    "subject": "ANATOMY", "paper": "PAPER I", "year": 2024, "session": "Summer (Supplementary)",
    "code": "01111A",
    "syllabus": "General Anatomy, Upper Limb, Lower Limb, Thorax",
    "LAQ": [
        "Describe the brachial plexus — roots, trunks, divisions, cords, and terminal branches. Add a note on injuries at different levels and resulting deformities.",
        "Describe the lungs: (a) External features — surfaces, borders, fissures, lobes (b) Bronchopulmonary segments (c) Blood supply (d) Lymphatic drainage (e) Applied anatomy"
    ],
    "SAQ": [
        "Write a note on the musculocutaneous nerve — origin, course, distribution, and injury",
        "Describe the arch of the aorta — branches and their distribution",
        "Write a note on the iliotibial tract — attachments and functions",
        "Describe the elbow joint — type, articular surfaces, and movements",
        "Write a note on sciatic nerve — origin, course, and injury effects",
        "Describe the thoracic duct — origin, course, and termination",
        "Write a note on the piriformis muscle and structures passing through the greater sciatic foramen",
        "Describe the tarsal bones and their arrangement",
        "Write a note on wrist joint — bones forming it and movements",
        "Describe the tributaries of the axillary vein"
    ],
    "BAQ": [
        "Name the lumbricals of the hand and their nerve supply",
        "What is Froment's sign?",
        "Name the carpal bones (proximal and distal rows)",
        "Define a tendon and give an example",
        "Name the muscles of the gluteal region",
        "What is the function of the peroneus longus muscle?",
        "Name the layers of the scalp",
        "Define mesothelioma",
        "Name structures passing through the inguinal canal in the female",
        "What is the saphenous opening?"
    ]
},

"ANATOMY_P1_2023_W": {
    "subject": "ANATOMY", "paper": "PAPER I", "year": 2023, "session": "Winter (Regular)",
    "code": "01111A",
    "syllabus": "General Anatomy, Upper Limb, Lower Limb, Thorax",
    "LAQ": [
        "Describe the inguinal canal: (a) Position (b) Boundaries — anterior, posterior, roof, floor (c) Contents in male and female (d) Mechanism preventing herniation (e) Types of inguinal hernia",
        "Describe the shoulder joint: (a) Type and articular surfaces (b) Capsule and synovial membrane (c) Ligaments (d) Muscles stabilizing the joint (e) Movements and applied anatomy"
    ],
    "SAQ": [
        "Write a note on the circumflex humeral arteries — origin, course, and distribution",
        "Describe the femoral nerve — origin, course, and branches in the thigh",
        "Write a note on the plantar fascia (plantar aponeurosis) — attachment and function",
        "Describe the cephalic vein — course and clinical importance",
        "Write a note on the thoracoepigastric vein and portosystemic anastomosis",
        "Describe the interosseous muscles of the hand — types, attachments, and functions",
        "Write a note on Colles' fracture — anatomy and deformity",
        "Describe the profunda femoris artery — origin, course, and branches",
        "Write a note on the superior gluteal nerve — origin and injury (Trendelenburg gait)",
        "Describe the pericardium — layers, sinuses, and nerve supply"
    ],
    "BAQ": [
        "Name the muscles of the anterior compartment of the leg",
        "What is the anatomical position?",
        "Name the bones forming the pectoral girdle",
        "Define periosteum",
        "Name the muscles producing abduction at the hip",
        "What is the function of the bicipital aponeurosis?",
        "Name two clinical uses of the great saphenous vein",
        "Define dermatome",
        "Name the flexor retinaculum attachments at the wrist",
        "What is the neurovascular bundle of an intercostal space?"
    ]
},

"ANATOMY_P1_2023_S": {
    "subject": "ANATOMY", "paper": "PAPER I", "year": 2023, "session": "Summer (Supplementary)",
    "code": "01111A",
    "syllabus": "General Anatomy, Upper Limb, Lower Limb, Thorax",
    "LAQ": [
        "Describe the radial nerve: (a) Origin and root value (b) Course in the arm, forearm, and hand (c) Branches at each level (d) Injury at axilla, spiral groove, and lateral epicondyle — resulting deformities",
        "Describe the popliteal fossa: (a) Boundaries (b) Roof and floor (c) Contents and their arrangement (d) Applied anatomy"
    ],
    "SAQ": [
        "Write a note on the palmar aponeurosis — attachments and clinical significance",
        "Describe the superior thoracic aperture — boundaries and structures passing through",
        "Write a note on the common peroneal nerve — injury and resulting deformity",
        "Describe the medial compartment of the thigh — muscles and nerve supply",
        "Write a note on the olecranon bursa — location and bursitis",
        "Describe the coronary arteries — origin, course, and distribution",
        "Write a note on the deep inguinal ring — location and structures passing through",
        "Describe the posterior tibial artery — origin, course, and branches",
        "Write a note on the basilic vein — course and clinical importance",
        "Describe the deltoid muscle — origin, insertion, nerve supply, and action"
    ],
    "BAQ": [
        "Name the muscles forming the rotator cuff",
        "What is anatomical snuff box?",
        "Name the bones of the tarsus",
        "Define epiphyseal plate",
        "Name the muscles attached to lesser trochanter",
        "What is a ganglion?",
        "Name the structures forming the boundaries of the femoral ring",
        "Define bursa",
        "Name the extensor tendons at the dorsum of the hand",
        "What is the function of the quadriceps femoris muscle?"
    ]
},

"ANATOMY_P1_2022_W": {
    "subject": "ANATOMY", "paper": "PAPER I", "year": 2022, "session": "Winter (Regular)",
    "code": "01111A",
    "syllabus": "General Anatomy, Upper Limb, Lower Limb, Thorax",
    "LAQ": [
        "Describe the median nerve: (a) Formation and root value (b) Course in the arm, cubital fossa, forearm, and hand (c) Branches and distribution (d) Injury at elbow and wrist — deformities and loss of function",
        "Describe the hip joint: (a) Type and articular surfaces (b) Capsule and synovial membrane (c) Ligaments (d) Blood supply and nerve supply (e) Relations (f) Movements and muscles producing them"
    ],
    "SAQ": [
        "Write a note on the thoracic outlet syndrome — anatomy and clinical features",
        "Describe the dorsalis pedis artery — origin, course, and branches",
        "Write a note on the anterior interosseous nerve — origin and structures supplied",
        "Describe the tibial nerve — origin, course in the popliteal fossa, and branches",
        "Write a note on the subclavian vein — course and clinical importance",
        "Describe the gluteus maximus — origin, insertion, nerve supply, and actions",
        "Write a note on the biceps brachii — heads, insertion, nerve supply, and actions",
        "Describe the costodiaphragmatic recess — location and clinical significance",
        "Write a note on the triquetral (triangular) fibrocartilage complex",
        "Describe the pectoral muscles — origins, insertions, and actions"
    ],
    "BAQ": [
        "Name the muscles of the hypothenar eminence",
        "What is a haemarthrosis?",
        "Name the bones of the foot",
        "Define articular cartilage",
        "Name the muscles inserted into the greater trochanter",
        "What is the function of the ligamentum teres?",
        "Name the structures forming the floor of the axilla",
        "Define epineurium",
        "Name two veins commonly used for IV access in the upper limb",
        "What is a varicose vein?"
    ]
},

"ANATOMY_P1_2022_S": {
    "subject": "ANATOMY", "paper": "PAPER I", "year": 2022, "session": "Summer (Supplementary)",
    "code": "01111A",
    "syllabus": "General Anatomy, Upper Limb, Lower Limb, Thorax",
    "LAQ": [
        "Describe the ulnar nerve: (a) Formation and root value (b) Course in the arm, elbow, forearm, and hand (c) Branches and distribution (d) Injury at medial epicondyle and at wrist — deformities",
        "Describe the femoral triangle: (a) Boundaries (b) Floor (c) Contents and their arrangement from lateral to medial (d) Femoral sheath and canal (e) Applied anatomy"
    ],
    "SAQ": [
        "Write a note on the lateral cutaneous nerve of the thigh — origin, course, and meralgia paraesthetica",
        "Describe the posterior compartment of the leg — muscles and nerve supply",
        "Write a note on the tributaries of the femoral vein",
        "Describe the surgical neck of the humerus — features and structures at risk",
        "Write a note on the first thoracic rib — features and anomalies",
        "Describe the tibialis anterior — origin, insertion, nerve supply, and action",
        "Write a note on thoracic vertebrae — distinguishing features",
        "Describe the adductor magnus — origin, insertion, and nerve supply",
        "Write a note on the femoral canal — boundaries and contents",
        "Describe the sternum — parts, features, and clinical importance"
    ],
    "BAQ": [
        "Name the branches of the radial nerve in the axilla",
        "What is a ganglion cyst?",
        "Name the intrinsic muscles of the foot",
        "Define retinaculum",
        "Name the muscles forming the medial wall of the axilla",
        "What is the function of the popliteus muscle?",
        "Name the veins forming the portal vein",
        "Define lymph node",
        "Name the muscles of the lateral compartment of the leg",
        "What is the role of patella?"
    ]
},

"ANATOMY_P1_2021_W": {
    "subject": "ANATOMY", "paper": "PAPER I", "year": 2021, "session": "Winter (Regular)",
    "code": "01111A",
    "syllabus": "General Anatomy, Upper Limb, Lower Limb, Thorax",
    "LAQ": [
        "Describe the axillary artery: (a) Origin (b) Parts and their relations (c) Branches of each part (d) Anastomoses around the shoulder (e) Applied anatomy",
        "Describe the knee joint: (a) Type and articular surfaces (b) Capsule (c) Ligaments — cruciate and collateral (d) Bursae (e) Movements and muscles (f) Applied anatomy"
    ],
    "SAQ": [
        "Write a note on the coracobrachialis muscle — origin, insertion, nerve supply, and action",
        "Describe the femoral artery — origin, course in femoral triangle, and branches",
        "Write a note on the carpal tunnel — contents and carpal tunnel syndrome",
        "Describe the gastrocnemius — origin, insertion, nerve supply, and action",
        "Write a note on the axillary nerve — origin, course, and injury (deltoid paralysis)",
        "Describe the thoracic duct — origin, course, and termination",
        "Write a note on the extensor retinaculum at the ankle",
        "Describe the structures forming the floor of the anatomical snuff box",
        "Write a note on the peroneal (fibular) artery — origin, course, and branches",
        "Describe the intercostal nerves — distribution and clinical significance"
    ],
    "BAQ": [
        "Name the bones forming the elbow joint",
        "What is a trigger finger?",
        "Name the muscles of the posterior compartment of the forearm (deep group)",
        "Define endomysium",
        "Name the ligaments of the ankle joint",
        "What is the function of the iliotibial band?",
        "Name the branches of the popliteal artery",
        "Define lymphedema",
        "Name the muscles producing plantarflexion at the ankle",
        "What is the anatomical basis of referred pain?"
    ]
},

"ANATOMY_P1_2021_S": {
    "subject": "ANATOMY", "paper": "PAPER I", "year": 2021, "session": "Summer (Supplementary)",
    "code": "01111A",
    "syllabus": "General Anatomy, Upper Limb, Lower Limb, Thorax",
    "LAQ": [
        "Describe the inguinal canal: (a) Position (b) Walls (c) Contents in male and female (d) Applied anatomy — direct vs indirect inguinal hernia",
        "Describe the cubital fossa: (a) Boundaries (b) Roof and floor (c) Contents (d) Applied anatomy (e) Supracondylar fracture of humerus — structures at risk"
    ],
    "SAQ": [
        "Write a note on the lymphatic drainage of the breast",
        "Describe the obturator foramen — boundaries and structures passing through",
        "Write a note on the posterior interosseous nerve — origin and injury",
        "Describe the plantar arches — types and clinical significance",
        "Write a note on the intercostal muscles — attachments and functions",
        "Describe the scaphoid bone — features, blood supply, and fracture complications",
        "Write a note on the trochanteric anastomosis",
        "Describe the long head of biceps — origin, course through shoulder joint, and importance",
        "Write a note on the posterior triangle of the neck — boundaries and contents",
        "Describe the femoral vein — formation, course, and tributaries"
    ],
    "BAQ": [
        "Name the muscles forming the posterior wall of the axilla",
        "What is volkmann's ischaemic contracture?",
        "Name the structures forming the boundaries of the femoral triangle",
        "Define a haematoma",
        "Name the muscles producing inversion of the foot",
        "What is the function of the flexor digitorum profundus?",
        "Name the tributaries of the internal jugular vein",
        "Define cartilage and its types",
        "Name the muscles producing lateral rotation at the hip",
        "What is the role of the labrum (acetabular) in the hip joint?"
    ]
},

# ══════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════
# ANATOMY  PAPER  II
# Covers: Abdomen, Pelvis, Head & Neck, Neuroanatomy
# ══════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════

"ANATOMY_P2_2025_W": {
    "subject": "ANATOMY", "paper": "PAPER II", "year": 2025, "session": "Winter (Regular)",
    "code": "01111B",
    "syllabus": "Abdomen, Pelvis, Head & Neck, Brain & Spinal Cord",
    "LAQ": [
        "Describe the portal vein: (a) Formation (b) Course (c) Tributaries (d) Portal-systemic anastomoses — sites, veins involved, and clinical significance (e) Applied anatomy — portal hypertension",
        "Describe the cerebellum: (a) External features — lobes and fissures (b) Internal structure — cortex layers and deep nuclei (c) Connections (d) Functions (e) Effects of cerebellar lesions"
    ],
    "SAQ": [
        "Write a note on the cavernous sinus — formation, relations, and contents",
        "Describe the bile duct — formation, course, and opening",
        "Write a note on the facial nerve — course and branches in the face",
        "Describe the stomach — peritoneal relations, blood supply, and lymphatic drainage",
        "Write a note on the hypothalamus — nuclei and functions",
        "Describe the floor of the mouth — muscles and their nerve supply",
        "Write a note on the subarachnoid space — extent and CSF pathway",
        "Describe the kidney — relations, blood supply, and lymphatic drainage",
        "Write a note on Broca's area — location and function",
        "Describe the uterus — blood supply, lymphatic drainage, and peritoneal relations"
    ],
    "BAQ": [
        "Name the structures forming the porta hepatis",
        "What is the McBurney's point?",
        "Name the branches of the facial nerve",
        "Define the blood-brain barrier",
        "Name the openings in the diaphragm and structures passing through them",
        "What is the Circle of Willis?",
        "Name the bones forming the orbit",
        "Define the pterion",
        "Name the paranasal sinuses",
        "What is the function of the olfactory nerve?"
    ]
},

"ANATOMY_P2_2025_S": {
    "subject": "ANATOMY", "paper": "PAPER II", "year": 2025, "session": "Summer (Supplementary)",
    "code": "01111B",
    "syllabus": "Abdomen, Pelvis, Head & Neck, Brain & Spinal Cord",
    "LAQ": [
        "Describe the inguinal region and inguinal hernia: (a) Inguinal ligament — attachments and derived structures (b) Internal oblique and transversus abdominis — conjoint tendon (c) Superficial and deep inguinal rings (d) Inguinal canal contents (e) Direct vs indirect hernia",
        "Describe the internal capsule: (a) Location (b) Parts — anterior limb, genu, posterior limb (c) Blood supply (d) Fibres passing through each part (e) Effects of internal capsule lesion (capsular haemorrhage)"
    ],
    "SAQ": [
        "Write a note on the cystic artery — origin, course, and surgical importance",
        "Describe the celiac trunk — origin, branches, and distribution",
        "Write a note on the trigeminal nerve — divisions and areas of distribution",
        "Describe the renal pelvis and ureter — course and constrictions",
        "Write a note on the thalamus — nuclei and functions",
        "Describe the parotid gland — location, relations, and duct",
        "Write a note on the ventricular system of the brain — CSF formation and circulation",
        "Describe the rectum — peritoneal relations and blood supply",
        "Write a note on the corpus callosum — location and functions",
        "Describe the lymphatic drainage of the stomach"
    ],
    "BAQ": [
        "Name the tributaries of the portal vein",
        "What is Hartmann's pouch?",
        "Name the cranial nerves supplying the tongue",
        "Define Wernicke's area",
        "Name the structures in the carotid sheath",
        "What is the pterygoid plexus?",
        "Name the muscles of mastication and their nerve supply",
        "Define herniation of the brain",
        "Name the parts of the large intestine",
        "What is the function of the sympathetic chain ganglion?"
    ]
},

"ANATOMY_P2_2024_W": {
    "subject": "ANATOMY", "paper": "PAPER II", "year": 2024, "session": "Winter (Regular)",
    "code": "01111B",
    "syllabus": "Abdomen, Pelvis, Head & Neck, Brain & Spinal Cord",
    "LAQ": [
        "Describe the liver: (a) External features — surfaces and lobes (b) Peritoneal relations (c) Blood supply — portal and arterial (d) Lymphatic drainage (e) Biliary apparatus (f) Applied anatomy",
        "Describe the spinal cord: (a) External features (b) Internal structure — grey matter, white matter (c) Ascending tracts (d) Descending tracts (e) Blood supply (f) Effects of hemisection — Brown-Séquard syndrome"
    ],
    "SAQ": [
        "Write a note on the circle of Willis — formation, components, and clinical importance",
        "Describe the duodenum — parts, peritoneal relations, and blood supply",
        "Write a note on the hypoglossal nerve — origin, course, and distribution",
        "Describe the adrenal glands — location, blood supply, and zones of cortex",
        "Write a note on the basal ganglia — components and functions",
        "Describe the submandibular gland — location, relations, and duct",
        "Write a note on the anterior cerebral artery — course and distribution",
        "Describe the fallopian tube — parts, blood supply, and clinical importance",
        "Write a note on the optic chiasma — location and lesion effects",
        "Describe the appendix — position, blood supply, and McBurney's point"
    ],
    "BAQ": [
        "Name the branches of the celiac trunk",
        "What is Calot's triangle?",
        "Name the extraocular muscles and their nerve supply",
        "Define the pterion and its clinical importance",
        "Name the bones forming the hard palate",
        "What is the tentorium cerebelli?",
        "Name the ligaments of the uterus",
        "Define meconium",
        "Name the parts of the colon",
        "What is the role of the olfactory bulb?"
    ]
},

"ANATOMY_P2_2024_S": {
    "subject": "ANATOMY", "paper": "PAPER II", "year": 2024, "session": "Summer (Supplementary)",
    "code": "01111B",
    "syllabus": "Abdomen, Pelvis, Head & Neck, Brain & Spinal Cord",
    "LAQ": [
        "Describe the kidney: (a) External features — surfaces, poles, borders (b) Relations (c) Blood supply — renal artery and vein (d) Lymphatic drainage (e) Nerve supply (f) Applied anatomy — horseshoe kidney, renal calculi",
        "Describe the cerebral cortex: (a) Layers — types of neurons (b) Functional areas — motor, sensory, visual, auditory, speech (c) Dominance (d) Effects of lesions in Broca's and Wernicke's areas"
    ],
    "SAQ": [
        "Write a note on the oesophagus — course, constrictions, and blood supply",
        "Describe the superior mesenteric artery — origin, branches, and area supplied",
        "Write a note on the glossopharyngeal nerve — components and distribution",
        "Describe the ovary — blood supply, lymphatic drainage, and descent",
        "Write a note on the caudate nucleus — location and connections",
        "Describe the parotid duct — course and opening",
        "Write a note on the middle cerebral artery — course and distribution",
        "Describe the bladder — peritoneal relations, blood supply, and nerve supply",
        "Write a note on the limbic system — components and functions",
        "Describe the lymphatic drainage of the large intestine"
      ],
    "BAQ": [
        "Name the constrictions of the oesophagus",
        "What is Meckel's diverticulum?",
        "Name the muscles of the soft palate",
        "Define uncus",
        "Name the structures passing through the jugular foramen",
        "What is the falx cerebri?",
        "Name the structures forming the broad ligament",
        "Define the isthmus of the uterus",
        "Name the branches of the superior mesenteric artery",
        "What is the function of the amygdala?"
    ]
},

"ANATOMY_P2_2023_W": {
    "subject": "ANATOMY", "paper": "PAPER II", "year": 2023, "session": "Winter (Regular)",
    "code": "01111B",
    "syllabus": "Abdomen, Pelvis, Head & Neck, Brain & Spinal Cord",
    "LAQ": [
        "Describe the stomach: (a) External features — parts and curvatures (b) Peritoneal relations (c) Blood supply (d) Lymphatic drainage (e) Nerve supply (f) Applied anatomy — gastric ulcer and carcinoma",
        "Describe the meninges: (a) Dura mater — layers, folds, venous sinuses (b) Arachnoid mater (c) Pia mater (d) Subarachnoid space (e) Extradural, subdural, and subarachnoid haemorrhage"
    ],
    "SAQ": [
        "Write a note on the middle meningeal artery — origin, course, and extradural haemorrhage",
        "Describe the spleen — peritoneal relations, blood supply, and lymphatic drainage",
        "Write a note on the vagus nerve — origin, course, and distribution in the abdomen",
        "Describe the prostate gland — zones, relations, and blood supply",
        "Write a note on the pineal body — location and functions",
        "Describe the infratemporal fossa — boundaries and contents",
        "Write a note on the posterior inferior cerebellar artery (PICA) — origin and territory",
        "Describe the pancreas — parts, relations, and blood supply",
        "Write a note on the reticular formation — location and functions",
        "Describe the vagina — relations, blood supply, and lymphatic drainage"
    ],
    "BAQ": [
        "Name the tributaries of the inferior vena cava",
        "What is the Pringle manoeuvre?",
        "Name the cranial nerve nuclei in the midbrain",
        "Define the extradural haemorrhage",
        "Name the muscles forming the floor of the mouth",
        "What is the function of the reticular activating system?",
        "Name the parts of the fallopian tube",
        "Define pouch of Douglas",
        "Name the arteries supplying the spinal cord",
        "What is Klüver-Bucy syndrome?"
    ]
},

"ANATOMY_P2_2023_S": {
    "subject": "ANATOMY", "paper": "PAPER II", "year": 2023, "session": "Summer (Supplementary)",
    "code": "01111B",
    "syllabus": "Abdomen, Pelvis, Head & Neck, Brain & Spinal Cord",
    "LAQ": [
        "Describe the gallbladder and bile passages: (a) Gallbladder — shape, position, and relations (b) Cystic duct (c) Common bile duct — formation, course, and opening (d) Calot's triangle (e) Applied anatomy — cholelithiasis and cholecystitis",
        "Describe the thalamus: (a) Location (b) Nuclear groups and their connections (c) Functions (d) Thalamic syndrome"
    ],
    "SAQ": [
        "Write a note on the sigmoid colon — course, blood supply, and peritoneal relations",
        "Describe the posterior cerebral artery — origin and distribution",
        "Write a note on the lacrimal apparatus — components and drainage",
        "Describe the abdominal aorta — origin, course, branches, and termination",
        "Write a note on the lateral ventricle — parts and CSF secretion",
        "Describe the inguinal ligament — attachments and derived structures",
        "Write a note on the corticospinal tract — origin, course, and decussation",
        "Describe the seminal vesicles — location, relations, and function",
        "Write a note on the hippocampus — location and functions",
        "Describe the lymphatic drainage of the rectum and anal canal"
    ],
    "BAQ": [
        "Name the lobes of the liver",
        "What is Couinaud's segmentation?",
        "Name the cranial nerves passing through the cavernous sinus",
        "Define the substantia nigra",
        "Name the structures passing through the foramen magnum",
        "What is the function of the red nucleus?",
        "Name the parts of the male urethra",
        "Define rectouterine pouch",
        "Name the branches of the internal iliac artery",
        "What is the function of the cerebral aqueduct?"
    ]
},

"ANATOMY_P2_2022_W": {
    "subject": "ANATOMY", "paper": "PAPER II", "year": 2022, "session": "Winter (Regular)",
    "code": "01111B",
    "syllabus": "Abdomen, Pelvis, Head & Neck, Brain & Spinal Cord",
    "LAQ": [
        "Describe the anterior abdominal wall: (a) Layers from skin to peritoneum (b) Rectus sheath — formation above and below arcuate line (c) Rectus abdominis — origin, insertion, nerve supply (d) Inguinal region (e) Applied anatomy — laparotomy incisions",
        "Describe the cerebellum: (a) External features — lobes and fissures (b) Layers of cortex (c) Deep nuclei (d) Cerebellar connections — afferent and efferent (e) Functions (f) Effects of cerebellar lesions"
    ],
    "SAQ": [
        "Write a note on the lesser omentum — attachments and contents of free margin",
        "Describe the vertebral artery — origin, course, and branches",
        "Write a note on the lingual nerve — origin, course, and distribution",
        "Describe the bladder — position in male, peritoneal relations, and nerve supply",
        "Write a note on the putamen — location and connections",
        "Describe the parotid gland — relations and structures within it",
        "Write a note on the anterior cerebral artery — branches and distribution",
        "Describe the sigmoid colon — peritoneal relations, blood supply",
        "Write a note on the aqueduct of Sylvius — location and clinical importance",
        "Describe the external iliac artery — origin, course, and relations"
    ],
    "BAQ": [
        "Name the structures forming the hepatoduodenal ligament",
        "What is Hartmann's operation?",
        "Name the branches of the basilar artery",
        "Define corona radiata",
        "Name the muscles closing the mouth",
        "What is the function of the substantia gelatinosa?",
        "Name the ligaments supporting the uterus",
        "Define gubernaculum testis",
        "Name the structures forming the epiploic foramen (foramen of Winslow)",
        "What is the function of the dorsal column?"
    ]
},

"ANATOMY_P2_2022_S": {
    "subject": "ANATOMY", "paper": "PAPER II", "year": 2022, "session": "Summer (Supplementary)",
    "code": "01111B",
    "syllabus": "Abdomen, Pelvis, Head & Neck, Brain & Spinal Cord",
    "LAQ": [
        "Describe the kidney: (a) External features (b) Internal features — cortex, medulla, columns, pyramids (c) Hilum and its contents (d) Relations (e) Blood supply (f) Applied anatomy — pyelonephritis, nephrectomy",
        "Describe the basal ganglia: (a) Components (b) Connections — afferent and efferent (c) Functions (d) Disorders — Parkinson's disease and Huntington's disease"
    ],
    "SAQ": [
        "Write a note on the greater omentum — attachments and functions",
        "Describe the internal carotid artery — course inside the skull and branches",
        "Write a note on the chorda tympani — origin, course, and distribution",
        "Describe the ureter — course, constrictions, and blood supply",
        "Write a note on the globus pallidus — location and connections",
        "Describe the submandibular gland — relations and duct",
        "Write a note on the posterior communicating artery — clinical importance",
        "Describe the ascending colon — peritoneal relations and blood supply",
        "Write a note on the third ventricle — boundaries and communications",
        "Describe the lymphatic drainage of the uterus"
    ],
    "BAQ": [
        "Name the openings in the diaphragm",
        "What is a hiatus hernia?",
        "Name the cranial nerves in the posterior cranial fossa",
        "Define the lenticular nucleus",
        "Name the muscles of the anterior triangle of the neck",
        "What is the function of the cerebral peduncle?",
        "Name the parts of the uterus",
        "Define vesicouterine pouch",
        "Name the branches of the portal vein",
        "What is the role of the fornices of the vagina?"
    ]
},

"ANATOMY_P2_2021_W": {
    "subject": "ANATOMY", "paper": "PAPER II", "year": 2021, "session": "Winter (Regular)",
    "code": "01111B",
    "syllabus": "Abdomen, Pelvis, Head & Neck, Brain & Spinal Cord",
    "LAQ": [
        "Describe the portal-systemic anastomoses: (a) Definition (b) Sites of anastomosis (c) Veins involved at each site (d) Clinical features of portal hypertension (e) Caput medusae and oesophageal varices",
        "Describe the spinal cord: (a) External features (b) Grey matter — anterior, lateral, and posterior horns (c) White matter — funiculi and tracts (d) Blood supply (e) Brown-Séquard syndrome"
    ],
    "SAQ": [
        "Write a note on the omental bursa (lesser sac) — boundaries and communications",
        "Describe the superior mesenteric artery — origin, branches, and area supplied",
        "Write a note on the petrosal sinuses — location and drainage",
        "Describe the urinary bladder — internal features and trigone",
        "Write a note on the spinothalamic tract — origin, course, and function",
        "Describe the nasal cavity — walls, mucosa, and nerve supply",
        "Write a note on the fourth ventricle — floor, roof, and foramina",
        "Describe the appendix — position, blood supply, and appendicitis",
        "Write a note on the optic radiation — course and effects of lesion",
        "Describe the lymphatic drainage of the breast (axillary nodes)"
    ],
    "BAQ": [
        "Name the branches of the superior mesenteric artery",
        "What is a Meckel's diverticulum?",
        "Name the branches of the external carotid artery",
        "Define the pyramid of the medulla",
        "Name the muscles of the soft palate",
        "What is a contrecoup injury?",
        "Name the structures in the broad ligament of the uterus",
        "Define a hydrocele",
        "Name the tributaries of the splenic vein",
        "What is the function of the dorsal column — medial lemniscus pathway?"
    ]
},

"ANATOMY_P2_2021_S": {
    "subject": "ANATOMY", "paper": "PAPER II", "year": 2021, "session": "Summer (Supplementary)",
    "code": "01111B",
    "syllabus": "Abdomen, Pelvis, Head & Neck, Brain & Spinal Cord",
    "LAQ": [
        "Describe the pharynx: (a) Parts — nasopharynx, oropharynx, laryngopharynx (b) Muscles — constrictors (c) Blood supply (d) Nerve supply (e) Waldeyer's ring (f) Applied anatomy",
        "Describe the hypothalamus: (a) Location and boundaries (b) Nuclear groups and their functions (c) Connections (d) Role in autonomic nervous system and temperature regulation"
    ],
    "SAQ": [
        "Write a note on the ligamentum teres hepatis — development and contents",
        "Describe the inferior mesenteric artery — origin, branches, and area supplied",
        "Write a note on the accessory nerve — origin, course, and distribution",
        "Describe the vas deferens — course and relations",
        "Write a note on the corticobulbar tract — fibres and effects of unilateral lesion",
        "Describe the maxillary sinus — location, openings, and drainage",
        "Write a note on the fornix — components and connections",
        "Describe the blood supply of the large intestine",
        "Write a note on the rubrospinal tract — origin and function",
        "Describe the lymphatic drainage of the testis"
    ],
    "BAQ": [
        "Name the ligaments of the liver",
        "What is the ileo-caecal valve?",
        "Name the branches of the trigeminal nerve (V3)",
        "Define the tegmentum",
        "Name the glands in the neck",
        "What is a Berry aneurysm?",
        "Name the structures forming the suspensory ligament of the ovary",
        "Define processus vaginalis",
        "Name the parts of the small intestine",
        "What is the function of the dorsal raphe nucleus?"
    ]
},

}  # end ANATOMY papers


# ══════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════
# Add Physiology and Biochemistry in separate file to keep size manageable
# ══════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════
print("Anatomy data loaded:", len(PAPERS), "papers")

# PHYSIOLOGY + BIOCHEMISTRY question data for MUHS 1st MBBS (2021-2025)

PAPERS_PHYSIO_BIOCHEM = {

# ══════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════
# PHYSIOLOGY  PAPER  I
# Covers: Blood, Cardiovascular, Respiratory, Renal, GI
# ══════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════

"PHYSIO_P1_2025_W": {
    "subject": "PHYSIOLOGY", "paper": "PAPER I", "year": 2025, "session": "Winter (Regular)",
    "code": "01112A",
    "syllabus": "Blood, Cardiovascular, Respiratory, Renal & GI Physiology",
    "LAQ": [
        "Describe the cardiac cycle: (a) Definition and duration (b) Events during systole and diastole (c) Pressure changes in aorta, ventricles, and atria (d) Volume changes — EDV, ESV, stroke volume (e) Heart sounds — generation and clinical significance",
        "Describe the oxygen dissociation curve: (a) Shape and significance (b) Factors shifting curve to right (c) Factors shifting curve to left (d) Bohr effect (e) 2,3-DPG and its role (f) Clinical applications — fetal haemoglobin"
    ],
    "SAQ": [
        "Describe erythropoiesis — stages, site, and hormonal regulation",
        "Write a note on the Frank-Starling law of the heart",
        "Describe the juxtaglomerular apparatus — structure and functions",
        "Write a note on surfactant — composition, function, and deficiency (IRDS)",
        "Describe tubular reabsorption of glucose — maximum tubular capacity",
        "Write a note on the ABO blood group system — antigens, antibodies, and compatibility",
        "Describe the dead space — anatomical vs physiological and clinical significance",
        "Write a note on the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS)",
        "Describe the process of haemostasis — primary and secondary",
        "Write a note on Starling's forces governing fluid exchange across capillaries"
    ],
    "BAQ": [
        "Define cardiac output and give its normal value",
        "Name the layers of the glomerular filtration barrier",
        "What is tidal volume? Give its normal value",
        "Name the clotting factors and their common names",
        "What is the normal haematocrit value?",
        "Define functional residual capacity",
        "Name the buffers in blood",
        "What is erythropoietin and where is it produced?",
        "Define glomerular filtration rate (GFR) and its normal value",
        "What is the P-R interval in an ECG?"
    ]
},

"PHYSIO_P1_2025_S": {
    "subject": "PHYSIOLOGY", "paper": "PAPER I", "year": 2025, "session": "Summer (Supplementary)",
    "code": "01112A",
    "syllabus": "Blood, Cardiovascular, Respiratory, Renal & GI Physiology",
    "LAQ": [
        "Describe renal clearance: (a) Definition and formula (b) Inulin clearance as measure of GFR (c) PAH clearance as measure of renal plasma flow (d) Clearance of glucose (e) Filtration fraction (f) Clinical applications",
        "Describe haemostasis and coagulation: (a) Vascular phase (b) Platelet plug formation (c) Coagulation cascade — intrinsic and extrinsic pathways (d) Common pathway (e) Fibrinolysis (f) Anticoagulants — heparin and warfarin mechanisms"
    ],
    "SAQ": [
        "Write a note on cardiac pacemaker — SA node, AP generation, and automaticity",
        "Describe the mechanism of breathing — muscles involved in inspiration and expiration",
        "Write a note on the counter-current multiplier system in the kidney",
        "Describe the functions of the spleen",
        "Write a note on pulmonary circulation — pressure, resistance, and hypoxic vasoconstriction",
        "Describe the secretion of hydrochloric acid in the stomach",
        "Write a note on dehydration — types and physiological responses",
        "Describe the lymphatic system — formation and functions of lymph",
        "Write a note on ventilation-perfusion ratio and its clinical importance",
        "Describe platelet structure and functions"
    ],
    "BAQ": [
        "Define stroke volume",
        "Name the constituents of plasma",
        "What is FEV1 and its significance?",
        "Name the renal tubular segments",
        "What is the normal WBC count?",
        "Define minute ventilation",
        "Name the gastrointestinal hormones",
        "What is the filtration fraction?",
        "Define pulse pressure",
        "Name the types of hypoxia"
    ]
},

"PHYSIO_P1_2024_W": {
    "subject": "PHYSIOLOGY", "paper": "PAPER I", "year": 2024, "session": "Winter (Regular)",
    "code": "01112A",
    "syllabus": "Blood, Cardiovascular, Respiratory, Renal & GI Physiology",
    "LAQ": [
        "Describe the regulation of arterial blood pressure: (a) Baroreceptor reflex (b) Chemoreceptor reflex (c) RAAS (d) Vasopressin (e) Long-term regulation",
        "Describe haemoglobin: (a) Structure (b) Types of haemoglobin (c) Oxygen-haemoglobin dissociation curve (d) Carbon dioxide transport (e) Abnormal haemoglobins — HbS, HbF"
    ],
    "SAQ": [
        "Write a note on erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) — method and clinical significance",
        "Describe the conducting system of the heart",
        "Write a note on pulmonary volumes and capacities — values and clinical significance",
        "Describe the countercurrent exchange mechanism in the vasa recta",
        "Write a note on blood coagulation — intrinsic pathway",
        "Describe gastric motility and emptying",
        "Write a note on plasma proteins — types, normal values, and functions",
        "Describe micturition — neural control and voiding reflex",
        "Write a note on the work of breathing",
        "Describe the secretion of bile — composition and enterohepatic circulation"
    ],
    "BAQ": [
        "Define ejection fraction",
        "Name the types of anaemia",
        "What is residual volume?",
        "Name the segments of the nephron",
        "What is the normal platelet count?",
        "Define compliance of the lung",
        "Name the digestive enzymes in pancreatic juice",
        "What is tubular maximum (Tm)?",
        "Define mean arterial pressure",
        "What are Rh antigens?"
    ]
},

"PHYSIO_P1_2024_S": {
    "subject": "PHYSIOLOGY", "paper": "PAPER I", "year": 2024, "session": "Summer (Supplementary)",
    "code": "01112A",
    "syllabus": "Blood, Cardiovascular, Respiratory, Renal & GI Physiology",
    "LAQ": [
        "Describe the ECG: (a) Lead system (b) Normal waveforms — P, QRS, T and their significance (c) P-R interval, QRS duration, Q-T interval (d) Cardiac axis (e) ECG changes in myocardial infarction",
        "Describe the regulation of respiration: (a) Respiratory centre — medullary and pontine (b) Chemical regulation — central and peripheral chemoreceptors (c) Hering-Breuer reflex (d) Effects of CO2, O2, and pH on breathing"
    ],
    "SAQ": [
        "Write a note on the ABO blood group system and blood transfusion reactions",
        "Describe the Starling-Landis equation and oedema formation",
        "Write a note on urine concentration — role of ADH",
        "Describe the action potential of ventricular muscle — phases",
        "Write a note on iron absorption in the intestine",
        "Describe the pressure-volume loop of the heart",
        "Write a note on renal handling of potassium",
        "Describe the functions of the liver",
        "Write a note on hypoxia — types and effects",
        "Describe the digestion and absorption of fats"
    ],
    "BAQ": [
        "Define cardiac reserve",
        "Name the formed elements of blood",
        "What is vital capacity?",
        "Name the hormones regulating renal function",
        "What is the normal blood pH?",
        "Define dead space ventilation",
        "Name the phases of gastric secretion",
        "What is tubuloglomerular feedback?",
        "Define venous return",
        "What is methaemoglobin?"
    ]
},

"PHYSIO_P1_2023_W": {
    "subject": "PHYSIOLOGY", "paper": "PAPER I", "year": 2023, "session": "Winter (Regular)",
    "code": "01112A",
    "syllabus": "Blood, Cardiovascular, Respiratory, Renal & GI Physiology",
    "LAQ": [
        "Describe the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system: (a) Stimuli for renin release (b) Steps in angiotensin formation (c) Actions of angiotensin II (d) Actions of aldosterone (e) Role in hypertension (f) ACE inhibitors as drugs",
        "Describe respiration at high altitude: (a) Changes in atmospheric pressure and PO2 (b) Immediate physiological responses (c) Acclimatization — haematological, respiratory, cardiovascular changes (d) Mountain sickness"
    ],
    "SAQ": [
        "Write a note on sickle cell anaemia — pathophysiology and peripheral blood smear",
        "Describe the sinoatrial node — location, automaticity, and pacemaker potential",
        "Write a note on the clearance of PAH and measurement of renal plasma flow",
        "Describe gastric secretion — phases and regulation by hormones",
        "Write a note on the surfactant — role in reducing surface tension",
        "Describe thrombopoiesis — megakaryocyte maturation and platelet formation",
        "Write a note on renal buffering of H+ ions — phosphate and ammonia buffers",
        "Describe capillary dynamics — filtration and reabsorption (Starling's hypothesis)",
        "Write a note on pancreatic secretion — enzymes and hormonal regulation",
        "Describe the mechanisms of urine concentration in the loop of Henle"
    ],
    "BAQ": [
        "Define peripheral resistance",
        "Name the layers of blood vessel wall",
        "What is the alveolar-arterial oxygen gradient?",
        "Name the cells lining the renal tubules",
        "What is the normal reticulocyte count?",
        "Define inspiratory reserve volume",
        "Name the enzymes secreted by the small intestine",
        "What is the chloride shift?",
        "Define osmotic pressure",
        "What is Haldane effect?"
    ]
},

"PHYSIO_P1_2023_S": {
    "subject": "PHYSIOLOGY", "paper": "PAPER I", "year": 2023, "session": "Summer (Supplementary)",
    "code": "01112A",
    "syllabus": "Blood, Cardiovascular, Respiratory, Renal & GI Physiology",
    "LAQ": [
        "Describe the cardiac cycle in detail: (a) Isovolumetric contraction and relaxation (b) Rapid and reduced ejection (c) Rapid and slow filling (d) Heart sounds S1-S4 (e) Jugular venous pulse (f) Applied physiology",
        "Describe the glomerular filtration: (a) Filtration membrane (b) Filtration forces (c) Starling equation applied to glomerulus (d) Factors affecting GFR (e) Measurement of GFR (f) Clinical applications"
    ],
    "SAQ": [
        "Write a note on anticoagulants — natural and pharmacological",
        "Describe mucociliary clearance and its clinical importance",
        "Write a note on renal autoregulation — myogenic mechanism and TGF",
        "Describe the absorption of iron — factors promoting and inhibiting",
        "Write a note on the Bainbridge reflex",
        "Describe the counter-current mechanism — role of loop of Henle",
        "Write a note on polycythaemia — types and physiological effects",
        "Describe the digestion and absorption of proteins",
        "Write a note on cardiac tamponade — physiology",
        "Describe the mechanisms regulating acid-base balance"
    ],
    "BAQ": [
        "Define preload and afterload",
        "Name the granulocytes",
        "What is tidal volume during exercise?",
        "Name the zones of the kidney",
        "What is the normal prothrombin time?",
        "Define anatomical dead space",
        "Name the phases of deglutition",
        "What is oncotic pressure?",
        "Define systolic pressure",
        "What is the role of carbonic anhydrase?"
    ]
},

"PHYSIO_P1_2022_W": {
    "subject": "PHYSIOLOGY", "paper": "PAPER I", "year": 2022, "session": "Winter (Regular)",
    "code": "01112A",
    "syllabus": "Blood, Cardiovascular, Respiratory, Renal & GI Physiology",
    "LAQ": [
        "Describe erythropoiesis: (a) Site at different ages (b) Stages of maturation (c) Nutritional requirements — iron, B12, folate (d) Hormonal regulation — erythropoietin (e) Anaemia — definition and classification",
        "Describe the regulation of GFR: (a) Intrinsic autoregulation (b) Tubuloglomerular feedback (c) Neural control (d) Hormonal control (e) Clinical conditions affecting GFR"
    ],
    "SAQ": [
        "Write a note on the work of the heart — external work and efficiency",
        "Describe ventilation-perfusion ratio — zones of the lung (West's zones)",
        "Write a note on aldosterone — mechanism of action on distal tubule",
        "Describe the cephalic phase of gastric secretion",
        "Write a note on coagulation disorders — haemophilia A and B",
        "Describe the effect of exercise on cardiovascular system",
        "Write a note on the role of kidney in acid-base balance",
        "Describe the mechanism of absorption of water in the intestine",
        "Write a note on myocardial infarction — ECG changes",
        "Describe the actions of atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)"
    ],
    "BAQ": [
        "Define heart rate and give its normal value",
        "Name the cells in blood and their normal counts",
        "What is FVC?",
        "Name the major electrolytes in ICF",
        "What is the normal haemoglobin value in males?",
        "Define intrapleural pressure",
        "Name the hormones controlling gastric motility",
        "What is the tubular maximum for glucose?",
        "Define blood pressure and give normal values",
        "What is von Willebrand factor?"
    ]
},

"PHYSIO_P1_2022_S": {
    "subject": "PHYSIOLOGY", "paper": "PAPER I", "year": 2022, "session": "Summer (Supplementary)",
    "code": "01112A",
    "syllabus": "Blood, Cardiovascular, Respiratory, Renal & GI Physiology",
    "LAQ": [
        "Describe coagulation cascade: (a) Extrinsic pathway (b) Intrinsic pathway (c) Common pathway (d) Role of calcium, vitamin K, and platelets (e) Fibrinolysis (f) Disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC)",
        "Describe carbon dioxide transport in blood: (a) Dissolved form (b) Carbamino compounds (c) Bicarbonate form — chloride shift (d) Haldane effect (e) Role of carbonic anhydrase"
    ],
    "SAQ": [
        "Write a note on the pacemaker potential of SA node vs ventricular action potential",
        "Describe the Hering-Breuer reflex and its role in breathing",
        "Write a note on ADH — stimulus, mechanism of action, and clinical disorders",
        "Describe the cephalic, gastric, and intestinal phases of pancreatic secretion",
        "Write a note on the physiological basis of oedema",
        "Describe pressure changes in the right and left heart and great vessels",
        "Write a note on titratable acidity in urine",
        "Describe the role of cholecystokinin (CCK) in digestion",
        "Write a note on blood viscosity — factors affecting it",
        "Describe the mechanism of platelet plug formation"
    ],
    "BAQ": [
        "Define contractility (inotropism)",
        "Name the plasma proteins and their functions",
        "What is peak expiratory flow rate (PEFR)?",
        "Name the principal buffers in blood",
        "What is the normal serum creatinine?",
        "Define lung compliance",
        "Name the cells secreting gastrin",
        "What is the Nernst equation?",
        "Define diastolic pressure",
        "What is the function of thromboxane A2?"
    ]
},

"PHYSIO_P1_2021_W": {
    "subject": "PHYSIOLOGY", "paper": "PAPER I", "year": 2021, "session": "Winter (Regular)",
    "code": "01112A",
    "syllabus": "Blood, Cardiovascular, Respiratory, Renal & GI Physiology",
    "LAQ": [
        "Describe the properties of cardiac muscle: (a) Automaticity — pacemakers (b) Conductivity — conducting system (c) Contractility — sliding filament theory (d) Rhythmicity (e) Refractory period — importance (f) All-or-none law",
        "Describe pulmonary ventilation: (a) Mechanics of breathing — muscles (b) Lung volumes and capacities (c) Work of breathing (d) Compliance (e) Surfactant (f) Applied physiology — spirometry"
    ],
    "SAQ": [
        "Write a note on blood groups — ABO and Rh system",
        "Describe the baroreceptor reflex — receptor location, afferent, centre, and efferent",
        "Write a note on the loop of Henle — role in concentrating urine",
        "Describe the phases of digestion — cephalic, gastric, intestinal",
        "Write a note on 2,3-diphosphoglycerate (2,3-DPG) and oxygen transport",
        "Describe the effect of exercise on respiration",
        "Write a note on renal handling of sodium",
        "Describe the intrinsic factor and vitamin B12 absorption",
        "Write a note on capillary exchange and lymph formation",
        "Describe the function of the liver in metabolism"
    ],
    "BAQ": [
        "Define cardiac index",
        "Name the types of white blood cells",
        "What is maximal voluntary ventilation (MVV)?",
        "Name the segments of the distal tubule",
        "What is haematocrit?",
        "Define closing capacity",
        "Name the digestive enzymes in saliva",
        "What is creatinine clearance?",
        "Define total peripheral resistance",
        "What is the role of pepsin in digestion?"
    ]
},

"PHYSIO_P1_2021_S": {
    "subject": "PHYSIOLOGY", "paper": "PAPER I", "year": 2021, "session": "Summer (Supplementary)",
    "code": "01112A",
    "syllabus": "Blood, Cardiovascular, Respiratory, Renal & GI Physiology",
    "LAQ": [
        "Describe the normal ECG: (a) Lead placements (b) Normal waveforms and intervals (c) Calculation of heart rate (d) Arrhythmias — sinus bradycardia, tachycardia, heart blocks (e) ECG in hyperkalaemia",
        "Describe the counter-current mechanism of urine concentration: (a) Role of loop of Henle — countercurrent multiplier (b) Role of vasa recta — countercurrent exchanger (c) Role of collecting duct (d) Role of ADH (e) Medullary interstitial osmolarity"
    ],
    "SAQ": [
        "Write a note on aplastic anaemia — causes and peripheral smear findings",
        "Describe the Poiseuille-Hagen formula and its application to blood flow",
        "Write a note on the neural control of respiration — medullary centres",
        "Describe the mechanism of action of erythropoietin",
        "Write a note on the physiology of micturition",
        "Describe the functions of bile salts",
        "Write a note on the physiological dead space",
        "Describe the absorption of carbohydrates — types of transport",
        "Write a note on heart failure — systolic vs diastolic",
        "Describe the hormonal regulation of the gastrointestinal tract"
    ],
    "BAQ": [
        "Define osmolarity and osmolality",
        "Name the clotting factors involved in the intrinsic pathway",
        "What is expiratory reserve volume?",
        "Name the cells of the juxtaglomerular apparatus",
        "What is the normal blood urea nitrogen (BUN)?",
        "Define surface tension in the lung",
        "Name the phases of the migrating motor complex",
        "What is free water clearance?",
        "Define wedge pressure",
        "What is the function of secretin?"
    ]
},

# ══════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════
# PHYSIOLOGY  PAPER  II
# Covers: Nerve, Muscle, Special Senses, CNS, Endocrinology, Reproduction
# ══════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════

"PHYSIO_P2_2025_W": {
    "subject": "PHYSIOLOGY", "paper": "PAPER II", "year": 2025, "session": "Winter (Regular)",
    "code": "01112B",
    "syllabus": "Nerve, Muscle, CNS, Special Senses, Endocrinology & Reproduction",
    "LAQ": [
        "Describe the neuromuscular junction: (a) Structure (b) Synthesis and release of acetylcholine (c) Events at the motor end plate (d) End-plate potential (e) Drugs acting at NMJ — succinylcholine, curare (f) Myasthenia gravis — pathophysiology",
        "Describe the hypothalamo-pituitary axis: (a) Hypothalamic nuclei and hormones (b) Pituitary — anterior and posterior (c) Feedback loops (d) Growth hormone — secretion, actions, and disorders (e) ADH — synthesis, release, and SIADH"
    ],
    "SAQ": [
        "Write a note on the action potential — generation and propagation",
        "Describe the withdrawal reflex — receptor, arc, and clinical importance",
        "Write a note on the role of the cerebellum in coordination",
        "Describe insulin — secretion, actions, and mechanism",
        "Write a note on muscle spindle — structure and function (stretch reflex)",
        "Describe colour vision — types of cones and colour blindness",
        "Write a note on the female reproductive cycle — follicular and luteal phases",
        "Describe the cortisol — synthesis, regulation, and actions",
        "Write a note on the vestibular system — receptors and pathways",
        "Describe the parathyroid hormone — actions and regulation"
    ],
    "BAQ": [
        "Define resting membrane potential",
        "Name the types of sensory receptors",
        "What is accommodation in the eye?",
        "Name the hormones of the posterior pituitary",
        "What is the role of the corpus luteum?",
        "Define absolute refractory period",
        "Name the adrenal cortical hormones",
        "What is a monosynaptic reflex? Give an example",
        "Define threshold stimulus",
        "What is the function of glucagon?"
    ]
},

"PHYSIO_P2_2025_S": {
    "subject": "PHYSIOLOGY", "paper": "PAPER II", "year": 2025, "session": "Summer (Supplementary)",
    "code": "01112B",
    "syllabus": "Nerve, Muscle, CNS, Special Senses, Endocrinology & Reproduction",
    "LAQ": [
        "Describe the basal ganglia: (a) Components (b) Direct and indirect pathways (c) Functions (d) Parkinson's disease — pathophysiology, neurotransmitters, and clinical features (e) Treatment principles",
        "Describe thyroid hormones: (a) Synthesis steps (b) Transport (c) Mechanism of action (d) Metabolic effects (e) Hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism (f) Calcitonin"
    ],
    "SAQ": [
        "Write a note on saltatory conduction — mechanism and advantages",
        "Describe the Golgi tendon organ — structure, function, and inverse stretch reflex",
        "Write a note on the EEG — rhythms and clinical applications",
        "Describe aldosterone — synthesis, actions, and hypoaldosteronism",
        "Write a note on spermatogenesis — stages and hormonal control",
        "Describe dark adaptation — changes in rhodopsin and rods",
        "Write a note on the menopause — physiological changes and hormone levels",
        "Describe the actions of insulin on carbohydrate, fat, and protein metabolism",
        "Write a note on auditory transduction — hair cell function",
        "Describe the physiological changes in pregnancy"
    ],
    "BAQ": [
        "Define synapse and its types",
        "Name the ascending sensory pathways",
        "What is the near point of vision?",
        "Name the zones of the adrenal cortex and their hormones",
        "What is the role of LH in the female?",
        "Define chronaxie",
        "Name the catecholamines and their effects",
        "What is a polysynaptic reflex?",
        "Define summation in muscle contraction",
        "What is the function of T3 and T4 on BMR?"
    ]
},

"PHYSIO_P2_2024_W": {
    "subject": "PHYSIOLOGY", "paper": "PAPER II", "year": 2024, "session": "Winter (Regular)",
    "code": "01112B",
    "syllabus": "Nerve, Muscle, CNS, Special Senses, Endocrinology & Reproduction",
    "LAQ": [
        "Describe synaptic transmission: (a) Types of synapses (b) Electrical events — EPSP and IPSP (c) Summation — spatial and temporal (d) Neurotransmitters — synthesis, release, and removal (e) Inhibitory mechanisms (f) Long-term potentiation",
        "Describe the female reproductive cycle: (a) Follicular phase — FSH, estrogen (b) Ovulation — LH surge (c) Luteal phase — progesterone (d) Menstruation (e) Hormonal changes throughout (f) Pregnancy — hCG and its role"
    ],
    "SAQ": [
        "Write a note on the stretch reflex — receptor, arc, and clinical uses",
        "Describe the visual pathway — from retina to visual cortex",
        "Write a note on glucocorticoids — anti-inflammatory actions and Cushing's syndrome",
        "Describe conduction velocity in nerves — types of fibres",
        "Write a note on the male sex hormones — testosterone actions and regulation",
        "Describe olfaction — receptor cells and olfactory pathway",
        "Write a note on diabetes mellitus type 1 — pathophysiology and complications",
        "Describe the role of the cerebral cortex in voluntary movement",
        "Write a note on the sense of equilibrium — semicircular canals",
        "Describe the functions of the spinal cord reflexes"
    ],
    "BAQ": [
        "Define resting membrane potential and give its normal value",
        "Name the nuclei in the hypothalamus involved in temperature regulation",
        "What is visual acuity?",
        "Name the tropic hormones of the anterior pituitary",
        "What is the role of progesterone?",
        "Define rheobase",
        "Name the neurotransmitters at the autonomic ganglia",
        "What is a crossed extensor reflex?",
        "Define tetanus in muscle physiology",
        "What is the function of calcitonin?"
    ]
},

"PHYSIO_P2_2024_S": {
    "subject": "PHYSIOLOGY", "paper": "PAPER II", "year": 2024, "session": "Summer (Supplementary)",
    "code": "01112B",
    "syllabus": "Nerve, Muscle, CNS, Special Senses, Endocrinology & Reproduction",
    "LAQ": [
        "Describe the ascending sensory pathways: (a) Dorsal column-medial lemniscal pathway — fibres, course, decussation, modalities (b) Spinothalamic tract — lateral and anterior, fibres, course, modalities (c) Clinical tests to differentiate their lesions",
        "Describe the adrenal medulla: (a) Chromaffin cells (b) Synthesis of catecholamines (c) Actions of adrenaline and noradrenaline on various systems (d) Pheochromocytoma — features and diagnosis"
    ],
    "SAQ": [
        "Write a note on signal transduction — second messenger systems",
        "Describe the knee jerk reflex — receptor, arc, and clinical grading",
        "Write a note on Parkinson's disease — dopaminergic pathways and drug treatment",
        "Describe calcium homeostasis — PTH, calcitonin, and vitamin D",
        "Write a note on spermatogenesis and the role of FSH and testosterone",
        "Describe the hearing process — from sound waves to cochlear microphonics",
        "Write a note on growth hormone — IGF-1 and growth plate effects",
        "Describe the limbic system — structures and functions",
        "Write a note on thermoregulation — set point and fever",
        "Describe the hypothalamo-pituitary-gonadal axis in the male"
    ],
    "BAQ": [
        "Define all-or-none law",
        "Name the types of nerve fibres",
        "What is presbyopia?",
        "Name the mineralocorticoids",
        "What is the role of FSH in the male?",
        "Define fatigue in muscle",
        "Name the cholinergic receptors",
        "What is a Babinski sign?",
        "Define wave summation",
        "What is the function of insulin on fat metabolism?"
    ]
},

"PHYSIO_P2_2023_W": {
    "subject": "PHYSIOLOGY", "paper": "PAPER II", "year": 2023, "session": "Winter (Regular)",
    "code": "01112B",
    "syllabus": "Nerve, Muscle, CNS, Special Senses, Endocrinology & Reproduction",
    "LAQ": [
        "Describe the cerebellum and its role in motor coordination: (a) Anatomical divisions (b) Neuronal circuitry — Purkinje cells, climbing and mossy fibres (c) Deep nuclei (d) Functions (e) Cerebellar signs — ataxia, dysmetria, dysdiadochokinesia, intention tremor (f) DASHING mnemonic",
        "Describe the pancreatic hormones: (a) Islets of Langerhans — cell types (b) Insulin — structure, secretion, and actions (c) Glucagon — secretion and actions (d) Somatostatin (e) Diabetes mellitus — types, pathophysiology, and complications"
    ],
    "SAQ": [
        "Write a note on the generation and propagation of action potential",
        "Describe the corticospinal tract — origin, course, and effects of lesion",
        "Write a note on the near and far point of vision and accommodation",
        "Describe the mechanism of muscle contraction — sliding filament theory",
        "Write a note on aldosterone — actions on kidney and Conn's syndrome",
        "Describe taste sensation — taste buds and gustatory pathway",
        "Write a note on physiological effects of castration in the male",
        "Describe the motor cortex — areas and organization (homunculus)",
        "Write a note on sound localization",
        "Describe the menstrual cycle — hormonal changes and endometrial changes"
    ],
    "BAQ": [
        "Define refractory period",
        "Name the reflex arcs and their components",
        "What is myopia?",
        "Name the hormones regulating blood glucose",
        "What is the role of estrogen in bone?",
        "Define motor unit",
        "Name the adrenergic receptors and their effects",
        "What is a positive Romberg sign?",
        "Define treppe (staircase phenomenon)",
        "What is the function of oxytocin?"
    ]
},

"PHYSIO_P2_2023_S": {
    "subject": "PHYSIOLOGY", "paper": "PAPER II", "year": 2023, "session": "Summer (Supplementary)",
    "code": "01112B",
    "syllabus": "Nerve, Muscle, CNS, Special Senses, Endocrinology & Reproduction",
    "LAQ": [
        "Describe the autonomic nervous system: (a) Divisions — sympathetic and parasympathetic (b) Ganglia and preganglionic and postganglionic fibres (c) Neurotransmitters and receptors (d) Actions on heart, blood vessels, GI tract, eye, and bladder (e) Clinical applications — autonomic neuropathy",
        "Describe thyroid function: (a) Synthesis of thyroid hormones (b) Iodine metabolism (c) Transport and metabolism (d) Mechanism of action (e) Hypothyroidism — causes, features, and TSH (f) Hyperthyroidism — Graves' disease"
    ],
    "SAQ": [
        "Write a note on Wallerian degeneration and nerve regeneration",
        "Describe the extrapyramidal system — components and functions",
        "Write a note on dark and light adaptation of the eye",
        "Describe the mechanism of action of steroid hormones vs peptide hormones",
        "Write a note on oogenesis — stages and comparison with spermatogenesis",
        "Describe the auditory pathway — from cochlea to auditory cortex",
        "Write a note on growth hormone deficiency — dwarfism types",
        "Describe the decerebrate and decorticate rigidities",
        "Write a note on placental hormones",
        "Describe the sensation of pain — gate control theory"
    ],
    "BAQ": [
        "Define conduction velocity",
        "Name the components of the limbic system",
        "What is hyperopia?",
        "Name the hormones of the anterior pituitary",
        "What is the function of prolactin?",
        "Define spatial summation",
        "Name the muscarinic receptors and their effectors",
        "What is Horner's syndrome?",
        "Define rigor mortis",
        "What is the function of melatonin?"
    ]
},

"PHYSIO_P2_2022_W": {
    "subject": "PHYSIOLOGY", "paper": "PAPER II", "year": 2022, "session": "Winter (Regular)",
    "code": "01112B",
    "syllabus": "Nerve, Muscle, CNS, Special Senses, Endocrinology & Reproduction",
    "LAQ": [
        "Describe the action potential in nerve fibre: (a) Resting membrane potential — ionic basis (b) Depolarization — role of Na+ (c) Repolarization — role of K+ (d) After-potentials (e) Absolute and relative refractory periods (f) Saltatory conduction",
        "Describe the pituitary gland: (a) Parts and cell types (b) Anterior pituitary hormones — structure and actions (c) Posterior pituitary hormones (d) Regulation — hypothalamic releasing and inhibiting hormones (e) Hypopituitarism"
    ],
    "SAQ": [
        "Write a note on the classification of nerve fibres (A, B, C) and their properties",
        "Describe the spinal cord reflexes — flexion, extension, and crossed extension",
        "Write a note on the accommodation reflex",
        "Describe adrenocortical insufficiency (Addison's disease) — pathophysiology",
        "Write a note on oogonia — formation and maturation",
        "Describe the hearing loss — conductive vs sensorineural",
        "Write a note on the actions of progesterone on the uterus and breast",
        "Describe the functions of the prefrontal cortex",
        "Write a note on the labyrinthine righting reflex",
        "Describe the effects of hypoglycaemia on the brain"
    ],
    "BAQ": [
        "Define chronaxie and its significance",
        "Name the ascending tracts in the spinal cord",
        "What is astigmatism?",
        "Name the releasing hormones of the hypothalamus",
        "What is the role of inhibin?",
        "Define twitch contraction",
        "Name the nicotinic receptor subtypes",
        "What is an upper motor neurone lesion?",
        "Define electrotonic potential",
        "What is the function of cortisol on immune system?"
    ]
},

"PHYSIO_P2_2022_S": {
    "subject": "PHYSIOLOGY", "paper": "PAPER II", "year": 2022, "session": "Summer (Supplementary)",
    "code": "01112B",
    "syllabus": "Nerve, Muscle, CNS, Special Senses, Endocrinology & Reproduction",
    "LAQ": [
        "Describe the reflex arc and spinal cord reflexes: (a) Components of reflex arc (b) Properties of reflex (c) Stretch reflex — receptor, arc, and inverse stretch reflex (d) Flexor withdrawal reflex (e) Crossed extensor reflex (f) Clinical significance",
        "Describe calcium homeostasis: (a) Distribution of calcium (b) Parathyroid hormone — actions on kidney, bone, and gut (c) Calcitonin (d) Vitamin D — synthesis and actions (e) Hypercalcaemia and hypocalcaemia — clinical features"
    ],
    "SAQ": [
        "Write a note on the classification of receptors — ionotropic vs metabotropic",
        "Describe the descending motor tracts — lateral vs ventromedial",
        "Write a note on the Argyll Robertson pupil and its significance",
        "Describe diabetes insipidus — central vs nephrogenic",
        "Write a note on the changes in puberty — male and female",
        "Describe the anatomy and physiology of the retina — rods and cones",
        "Write a note on the physiological effects of oestrogen",
        "Describe sleep stages — NREM and REM",
        "Write a note on hypothyroidism and its effects",
        "Describe the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system and its role in blood pressure"
    ],
    "BAQ": [
        "Define polarization",
        "Name the descending tracts in the spinal cord",
        "What is the blind spot?",
        "Name the gonadotropins",
        "What is HCG?",
        "Define rigor in muscle",
        "Name the catecholamine receptors",
        "What is a lower motor neurone lesion?",
        "Define generator potential",
        "What is the function of FSH in the female?"
    ]
},

"PHYSIO_P2_2021_W": {
    "subject": "PHYSIOLOGY", "paper": "PAPER II", "year": 2021, "session": "Winter (Regular)",
    "code": "01112B",
    "syllabus": "Nerve, Muscle, CNS, Special Senses, Endocrinology & Reproduction",
    "LAQ": [
        "Describe the sliding filament theory of muscle contraction: (a) Structure of sarcomere (b) Proteins involved — actin, myosin, troponin, tropomyosin (c) Role of calcium (d) Cross-bridge cycle (e) Excitation-contraction coupling (f) Rigor mortis",
        "Describe the visual pathway: (a) Retinal layers (b) Optic nerve, chiasma, and tract (c) Lateral geniculate body (d) Optic radiation (e) Visual cortex (f) Visual field defects with lesion at each level"
    ],
    "SAQ": [
        "Write a note on the cerebellar peduncles — composition and functions",
        "Describe the somatosensory cortex — homunculus and topographic organization",
        "Write a note on ACTH — synthesis, actions, and Cushing's syndrome",
        "Describe the process of hearing — role of ossicles and oval window",
        "Write a note on testosterone — synthesis, transport, and actions",
        "Describe the sleep-wake cycle and function of sleep",
        "Write a note on the action of ADH on the collecting duct",
        "Describe the control of posture by the cerebellum and basal ganglia",
        "Write a note on the placenta — hormonal functions",
        "Describe colour vision — trichromatic theory and defects"
    ],
    "BAQ": [
        "Define end-plate potential",
        "Name the inhibitory neurotransmitters",
        "What is the near point of vision?",
        "Name the pancreatic islet cell types and their hormones",
        "What is the role of relaxin?",
        "Define isometric and isotonic contraction",
        "Name the spinal cord levels of origin of sympathetic outflow",
        "What is Chvostek's sign?",
        "Define temporal summation",
        "What is the role of sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG)?"
    ]
},

"PHYSIO_P2_2021_S": {
    "subject": "PHYSIOLOGY", "paper": "PAPER II", "year": 2021, "session": "Summer (Supplementary)",
    "code": "01112B",
    "syllabus": "Nerve, Muscle, CNS, Special Senses, Endocrinology & Reproduction",
    "LAQ": [
        "Describe the autonomic nervous system in detail: (a) Organization — central and peripheral (b) Sympathetic division — outflow, ganglia, neurotransmitters (c) Parasympathetic division — outflow, ganglia (d) Comparison of effects on target organs (e) Autonomic pharmacology",
        "Describe the male reproductive physiology: (a) Spermatogenesis — stages (b) Role of FSH and LH (c) Testosterone — synthesis and actions (d) Blood-testis barrier (e) Infertility — causes"
    ],
    "SAQ": [
        "Write a note on classification of sensory receptors by adequate stimulus",
        "Describe the decerebrate preparation and decerebrate rigidity",
        "Write a note on the intraocular pressure — normal and glaucoma",
        "Describe the synthesis of mineralocorticoids — aldosterone pathway",
        "Write a note on lactation — hormones involved and milk ejection reflex",
        "Describe nociception — types of pain receptors and pain pathways",
        "Write a note on the pineal gland — melatonin synthesis and functions",
        "Describe the physiological basis of EEG rhythms",
        "Write a note on hypothalamic control of temperature",
        "Describe the phases of the menstrual cycle and endometrial changes"
    ],
    "BAQ": [
        "Define action potential threshold",
        "Name the nociceptors",
        "What is the pupillary light reflex?",
        "Name the hormones of the thyroid gland",
        "What is the function of inhibin in the male?",
        "Define the muscle tone",
        "Name the parasympathetic ganglia in the head",
        "What is Trousseau's sign?",
        "Define tonus in smooth muscle",
        "What is the function of beta-endorphin?"
    ]
},

# ══════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════
# BIOCHEMISTRY  PAPER  I
# Covers: Biomolecules, Enzymes, Carbohydrate Metabolism, Lipid Metabolism
# ══════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════

"BIOCHEM_P1_2025_W": {
    "subject": "BIOCHEMISTRY", "paper": "PAPER I", "year": 2025, "session": "Winter (Regular)",
    "code": "01113A",
    "syllabus": "Biomolecules, Enzymes, Carbohydrate & Lipid Metabolism",
    "LAQ": [
        "Describe glycolysis: (a) Enzymes and steps in each reaction (b) Energy yielding and consuming steps (c) Regulation — allosteric enzymes (d) Net ATP yield (e) Fate of pyruvate under aerobic and anaerobic conditions (f) Pasteur effect",
        "Describe enzyme inhibition: (a) Competitive inhibition — Lineweaver-Burk plot changes (b) Non-competitive inhibition (c) Uncompetitive inhibition (d) Irreversible inhibition (e) Clinical examples — methotrexate, aspirin, penicillin"
    ],
    "SAQ": [
        "Write a note on the TCA cycle — steps, enzymes, and energy yield",
        "Describe lipoprotein metabolism — types of lipoproteins and their functions",
        "Write a note on glycogen synthesis — glycogenin and glycogen synthase",
        "Describe ketone body formation and utilization",
        "Write a note on the pentose phosphate pathway — oxidative phase",
        "Describe the enzyme kinetics — Michaelis-Menten equation and Km",
        "Write a note on glycogen storage diseases — types and deficient enzymes",
        "Describe beta-oxidation of a saturated fatty acid — steps and ATP yield",
        "Write a note on the Cori cycle — its significance",
        "Describe de novo synthesis of fatty acids — key enzyme and steps"
    ],
    "BAQ": [
        "Name the allosteric enzymes in glycolysis",
        "What is the significance of Km value?",
        "Name the cofactors of the TCA cycle",
        "What is familial hypercholesterolaemia?",
        "Name the enzymes deficient in the glycogen storage diseases (any three)",
        "What is the respiratory quotient of carbohydrates?",
        "Name the shuttle systems for NADH transfer",
        "What is a zymogen?",
        "Name the lipoproteins in order of increasing density",
        "What is the uncoupling protein in brown fat?"
    ]
},

"BIOCHEM_P1_2025_S": {
    "subject": "BIOCHEMISTRY", "paper": "PAPER I", "year": 2025, "session": "Summer (Supplementary)",
    "code": "01113A",
    "syllabus": "Biomolecules, Enzymes, Carbohydrate & Lipid Metabolism",
    "LAQ": [
        "Describe the electron transport chain: (a) Components — NADH dehydrogenase complex, cytochromes (b) Flow of electrons (c) Proton gradient and ATP synthesis — chemiosmotic theory (d) Inhibitors of the ETC (e) Uncouplers — DNP, thermogenin (f) P/O ratio",
        "Describe cholesterol metabolism: (a) Structure (b) Synthesis — HMG-CoA reductase pathway (c) Transport — LDL receptor pathway (d) Metabolism — bile acids, steroid hormones (e) Statins — mechanism (f) Atherosclerosis"
    ],
    "SAQ": [
        "Write a note on gluconeogenesis — substrates, key enzymes, and bypass reactions",
        "Describe the structure of haemoglobin and myoglobin — differences",
        "Write a note on essential fatty acids — types and deficiency",
        "Describe the metabolism of galactose — galactokinase pathway",
        "Write a note on allosteric regulation of enzymes",
        "Describe the Embden-Meyerhof pathway — regulation by fructose-2,6-bisphosphate",
        "Write a note on oxidative phosphorylation inhibitors and their clinical use",
        "Describe the metabolism of fructose and hereditary fructose intolerance",
        "Write a note on the synthesis of prostaglandins from arachidonic acid",
        "Describe glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c) — formation and clinical use"
    ],
    "BAQ": [
        "Name the irreversible steps in glycolysis",
        "What is the Michaelis constant?",
        "Name the NADH-producing steps in TCA cycle",
        "What is hyperlipoproteinaemia type IIa?",
        "Name the enzymes of the pentose phosphate pathway",
        "What is the respiratory quotient of fats?",
        "Name the vitamin cofactors required in the TCA cycle",
        "What is an apolipoprotein?",
        "Name the ketone bodies",
        "What is the role of carnitine in fatty acid metabolism?"
    ]
},

"BIOCHEM_P1_2024_W": {
    "subject": "BIOCHEMISTRY", "paper": "PAPER I", "year": 2024, "session": "Winter (Regular)",
    "code": "01113A",
    "syllabus": "Biomolecules, Enzymes, Carbohydrate & Lipid Metabolism",
    "LAQ": [
        "Describe the TCA (Krebs) cycle: (a) Steps and enzymes (b) NADH, FADH2, GTP produced per turn (c) Regulation — three key regulatory enzymes (d) Anaplerotic reactions (e) Clinical significance — TCA cycle intermediates in amino acid synthesis",
        "Describe carbohydrate metabolism in the fed and fasting state: (a) After a carbohydrate meal (b) After overnight fasting (c) After prolonged starvation (d) Role of insulin, glucagon, and cortisol"
    ],
    "SAQ": [
        "Write a note on enzyme classification — IUB system with examples",
        "Describe phospholipid structure and functions — lecithin and sphingomyelin",
        "Write a note on hexose monophosphate shunt — clinical importance in G6PD deficiency",
        "Describe fatty acid synthesis — acetyl CoA carboxylase and FAS complex",
        "Write a note on the classification of diabetes mellitus",
        "Describe the metabolism of pyruvate — pyruvate dehydrogenase complex",
        "Write a note on the structure of LDL and its receptor",
        "Describe the mechanism of action of enzymes — lock-and-key vs induced fit",
        "Write a note on ketoacidosis — biochemical basis in type 1 diabetes",
        "Describe the Lineweaver-Burk double reciprocal plot"
    ],
    "BAQ": [
        "Name the energy-requiring reactions in glycolysis",
        "What is the specific activity of an enzyme?",
        "Name the products of one turn of the TCA cycle",
        "What is chylomicron?",
        "Name the hormones that stimulate glycogenolysis",
        "What is the bioenergetics significance of NADH vs FADH2?",
        "Name the substrate-level phosphorylations in the TCA cycle",
        "What is the role of biotin in metabolism?",
        "Name the intermediates of the TCA cycle",
        "What is a lipid raft?"
    ]
},

"BIOCHEM_P1_2024_S": {
    "subject": "BIOCHEMISTRY", "paper": "PAPER I", "year": 2024, "session": "Summer (Supplementary)",
    "code": "01113A",
    "syllabus": "Biomolecules, Enzymes, Carbohydrate & Lipid Metabolism",
    "LAQ": [
        "Describe beta-oxidation of fatty acids: (a) Activation of fatty acid (b) Transport into mitochondria — carnitine shuttle (c) Steps of beta-oxidation (d) ATP yield for palmitic acid (e) Oxidation of odd-chain and unsaturated fatty acids (f) Clinical significance",
        "Describe protein structure: (a) Primary structure — peptide bond (b) Secondary structure — alpha helix and beta sheet (c) Tertiary structure — forces stabilizing (d) Quaternary structure — example of haemoglobin (e) Denaturation — causes and effects"
    ],
    "SAQ": [
        "Write a note on the substrate-level vs oxidative phosphorylation",
        "Describe insulin action on glucose transport — GLUT transporters",
        "Write a note on gangliosides and their storage diseases (Tay-Sachs)",
        "Describe the enzymes regulating glycogen metabolism",
        "Write a note on the biological role of cholesterol",
        "Describe the reactions catalyzed by pyruvate carboxylase and PEP carboxykinase",
        "Write a note on the fatty liver — biochemical causes",
        "Describe the Michaelis-Menten kinetics — assumptions and derivation",
        "Write a note on the action of thromboxanes and prostacyclin",
        "Describe the metabolism of lactate — Cori cycle"
    ],
    "BAQ": [
        "Name the enzymes unique to gluconeogenesis",
        "What is the turnover number of an enzyme?",
        "Name the reactions linking glycolysis to TCA cycle",
        "What is VLDL?",
        "Name the glycogen storage diseases (list three with enzyme deficiency)",
        "What is the significance of acetyl CoA?",
        "Name the electron carriers in the ETC",
        "What is phosphatidylcholine?",
        "Name the types of RNA",
        "What is the role of CoA in metabolism?"
    ]
},

"BIOCHEM_P1_2023_W": {
    "subject": "BIOCHEMISTRY", "paper": "PAPER I", "year": 2023, "session": "Winter (Regular)",
    "code": "01113A",
    "syllabus": "Biomolecules, Enzymes, Carbohydrate & Lipid Metabolism",
    "LAQ": [
        "Describe glycogen metabolism: (a) Glycogen synthesis — glycogenin, glycogen synthase, branching enzyme (b) Glycogen breakdown — glycogen phosphorylase, debranching enzyme (c) Hormonal regulation — insulin, glucagon, adrenaline (d) Glycogen storage diseases — Von Gierke's, Pompe's, McArdle's",
        "Describe cholesterol synthesis: (a) Acetyl CoA to mevalonate (b) Mevalonate to isoprene (c) Squalene to lanosterol to cholesterol (d) Regulation of HMG-CoA reductase (e) Products of cholesterol — bile acids, steroids, vitamin D (f) Statins"
    ],
    "SAQ": [
        "Write a note on the classification of amino acids — essential and non-essential",
        "Describe the phospholipid bilayer — fluid mosaic model",
        "Write a note on lactate dehydrogenase — isoenzymes and clinical significance",
        "Describe the tricarboxylic acid cycle regulation",
        "Write a note on eicosanoids — synthesis and functions",
        "Describe the role of coenzymes in biochemical reactions",
        "Write a note on galactosaemia — enzyme deficiency and clinical features",
        "Describe the structure and function of cytochrome P450 enzymes",
        "Write a note on lipid peroxidation and antioxidants",
        "Describe the malate-aspartate shuttle"
    ],
    "BAQ": [
        "Name the products of complete oxidation of acetyl CoA in TCA",
        "What is competitive inhibition?",
        "Name the transport proteins for fatty acids",
        "What is acetoacetyl CoA?",
        "Name the enzymes of glycogenolysis",
        "What is the energy yield from one mole of glucose?",
        "Name the protein targeting signals",
        "What is sphingomyelin?",
        "Name the six EC enzyme classes",
        "What is the function of ubiquinone (CoQ)?"
    ]
},

"BIOCHEM_P1_2023_S": {
    "subject": "BIOCHEMISTRY", "paper": "PAPER I", "year": 2023, "session": "Summer (Supplementary)",
    "code": "01113A",
    "syllabus": "Biomolecules, Enzymes, Carbohydrate & Lipid Metabolism",
    "LAQ": [
        "Describe gluconeogenesis: (a) Definition and substrates (b) Steps from pyruvate to glucose — bypass reactions (c) Role of key enzymes (d) Regulation — reciprocal regulation with glycolysis (e) Glucose-alanine cycle (f) Clinical significance in starvation and diabetes",
        "Describe the electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation: (a) Components and order (b) Redox potentials (c) Mitchell's chemiosmotic hypothesis (d) ATP synthase — F0F1 complex (e) Inhibitors (f) Clinical disorders — MELAS, Leber's optic neuropathy"
    ],
    "SAQ": [
        "Write a note on the classification of lipids",
        "Describe the synthesis of acetyl CoA from pyruvate — PDH complex",
        "Write a note on leptin — synthesis and functions",
        "Describe the metabolism of sphingolipids and sphingolipidoses",
        "Write a note on isoenzymes — diagnostic use of CK, LDH isoenzymes",
        "Describe the anaplerotic reactions of TCA cycle",
        "Write a note on the transport of fatty acids by chylomicrons",
        "Describe the role of ATP in bioenergetics — high-energy phosphate compounds",
        "Write a note on metabolism of mannose and sorbitol pathway",
        "Describe the biochemical basis of obesity"
    ],
    "BAQ": [
        "Name the enzymes activated by insulin in carbohydrate metabolism",
        "What is the inhibitory constant Ki?",
        "Name the vitamin-derived coenzymes",
        "What is reverse cholesterol transport?",
        "Name the reactions producing FADH2 in TCA",
        "What is the P/O ratio for NADH vs FADH2?",
        "Name the shuttle mechanisms for NADH entry into mitochondria",
        "What is a cerebroside?",
        "Name the regulation points of cholesterol synthesis",
        "What is the function of lipoprotein lipase?"
    ]
},

"BIOCHEM_P1_2022_W": {
    "subject": "BIOCHEMISTRY", "paper": "PAPER I", "year": 2022, "session": "Winter (Regular)",
    "code": "01113A",
    "syllabus": "Biomolecules, Enzymes, Carbohydrate & Lipid Metabolism",
    "LAQ": [
        "Describe carbohydrate digestion and absorption: (a) Salivary amylase (b) Pancreatic amylase (c) Brush border enzymes (d) Absorption mechanisms — SGLT1, GLUT2, GLUT5 (e) Lactase deficiency and lactose intolerance",
        "Describe the structure and properties of proteins: (a) Amino acid structure (b) Peptide bond (c) Levels of protein structure (d) Fibrous vs globular proteins (e) Protein folding — chaperones (f) Protein misfolding diseases"
    ],
    "SAQ": [
        "Write a note on phosphofructokinase-1 — regulation by AMP, ATP, and fructose-2,6-bisphosphate",
        "Describe the fatty acid oxidation of an odd-chain fatty acid",
        "Write a note on the pentose phosphate pathway — NADPH production and clinical significance",
        "Describe the classification of glycoproteins and their functions",
        "Write a note on enzyme kinetics — Vmax and its significance",
        "Describe lipid digestion and absorption — bile salts and micelles",
        "Write a note on carnitine deficiency and its metabolic effects",
        "Describe the regulation of fatty acid synthesis vs degradation",
        "Write a note on sialic acids and their role in cell recognition",
        "Describe the energy balance in aerobic glycolysis vs anaerobic glycolysis"
    ],
    "BAQ": [
        "Name the glycolytic enzymes that are allosterically regulated",
        "What is product inhibition?",
        "Name the products of lipolysis",
        "What is mevalonate?",
        "Name the glycoprotein-processing steps in the ER and Golgi",
        "What is net ATP yield from glycolysis?",
        "Name the organs that can use ketone bodies",
        "What is the role of malonyl CoA in lipid metabolism?",
        "Name the steps in TCA cycle releasing CO2",
        "What is the function of apoB-100?"
    ]
},

"BIOCHEM_P1_2022_S": {
    "subject": "BIOCHEMISTRY", "paper": "PAPER I", "year": 2022, "session": "Summer (Supplementary)",
    "code": "01113A",
    "syllabus": "Biomolecules, Enzymes, Carbohydrate & Lipid Metabolism",
    "LAQ": [
        "Describe enzyme kinetics: (a) Michaelis-Menten equation (b) Derivation of Km (c) Lineweaver-Burk plot (d) Enzyme inhibition — competitive, non-competitive, uncompetitive (e) Allosteric enzymes — sigmoidal curve (f) Clinical examples of enzyme inhibition",
        "Describe the metabolism of lipids in the fed and fasting state: (a) After a fatty meal — chylomicron formation (b) During fasting — lipolysis, beta-oxidation (c) Prolonged starvation — ketogenesis (d) Hormonal regulation"
    ],
    "SAQ": [
        "Write a note on the structure of nucleotides — purines and pyrimidines",
        "Describe the pyruvate kinase reaction and its regulation",
        "Write a note on bile acid synthesis from cholesterol",
        "Describe the structure of phospholipids — head group variety",
        "Write a note on the biochemical basis of atherosclerosis",
        "Describe the glycolytic control points",
        "Write a note on the synthesis of triacylglycerols",
        "Describe the structure and function of cytochrome c",
        "Write a note on secondary active transport in intestine",
        "Describe the metabolism of galactose and galactosaemia"
    ],
    "BAQ": [
        "Name the vitamins acting as cofactors in the TCA cycle",
        "What is a transition state analogue?",
        "Name the products of lipolysis in adipose tissue",
        "What is HDL?",
        "Name the enzyme deficient in phenylketonuria",
        "What is ATP yield from one FADH2?",
        "Name the organs carrying out gluconeogenesis",
        "What is phosphatidylserine?",
        "Name the steps producing NADH in glycolysis",
        "What is the role of apoE in lipoprotein metabolism?"
    ]
},

"BIOCHEM_P1_2021_W": {
    "subject": "BIOCHEMISTRY", "paper": "PAPER I", "year": 2021, "session": "Winter (Regular)",
    "code": "01113A",
    "syllabus": "Biomolecules, Enzymes, Carbohydrate & Lipid Metabolism",
    "LAQ": [
        "Describe the pentose phosphate pathway (HMP shunt): (a) Oxidative phase — reactions and products (b) Non-oxidative phase — transketolase and transaldolase (c) NADPH generation (d) Functions of NADPH (e) G6PD deficiency — haemolytic anaemia (f) Clinical significance",
        "Describe lipoproteins: (a) Classification by density (b) Structure of lipoprotein (c) Chylomicron — synthesis and catabolism (d) VLDL and LDL metabolism (e) HDL and reverse cholesterol transport (f) Familial hypercholesterolaemia"
    ],
    "SAQ": [
        "Write a note on coenzyme A — structure and metabolic roles",
        "Describe the Warburg effect in cancer cells",
        "Write a note on the synthesis of cholesterol — squalene to cholesterol",
        "Describe the classification of enzyme inhibitors with examples",
        "Write a note on carnitine palmitoyltransferase I — regulation and deficiency",
        "Describe the regulation of TCA cycle",
        "Write a note on the structures of triglycerides and their properties",
        "Describe pyruvate dehydrogenase complex — components and regulation",
        "Write a note on glycosaminoglycans — types and clinical significance",
        "Describe the anaerobic glycolysis and lactic acidosis"
    ],
    "BAQ": [
        "Name the coenzymes of pyruvate dehydrogenase complex",
        "What is inhibitor constant?",
        "Name the products of one cycle of beta-oxidation",
        "What is LDL receptor?",
        "Name the glycolytic enzymes not in gluconeogenesis",
        "What is the net NADH from glycolysis?",
        "Name the lipid-soluble vitamins",
        "What is 3-hydroxybutyrate?",
        "Name the forms of glycogen regulation",
        "What is the significance of NADPH?"
    ]
},

"BIOCHEM_P1_2021_S": {
    "subject": "BIOCHEMISTRY", "paper": "PAPER I", "year": 2021, "session": "Summer (Supplementary)",
    "code": "01113A",
    "syllabus": "Biomolecules, Enzymes, Carbohydrate & Lipid Metabolism",
    "LAQ": [
        "Describe de novo synthesis of fatty acids: (a) Site (b) Acetyl CoA carboxylase — regulation (c) Fatty acid synthase complex — ACP domain, reactions (d) Product — palmitate (e) Elongation and desaturation (f) Comparison with beta-oxidation",
        "Describe protein digestion and absorption: (a) Gastric phase — pepsinogen activation (b) Pancreatic proteases — trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen, proelastase, procarboxypeptidase (c) Brush border peptidases (d) Amino acid transporters (e) Hartnup disease"
    ],
    "SAQ": [
        "Write a note on proton-motive force and ATP synthesis",
        "Describe the regulation of HMG-CoA reductase",
        "Write a note on peroxisomal fatty acid oxidation vs mitochondrial",
        "Describe the structure and function of collagen",
        "Write a note on the catabolism of heme — bilirubin metabolism",
        "Describe the glycolytic enzymes — hexokinase vs glucokinase",
        "Write a note on the structure of membrane lipids — glycerophospholipids",
        "Describe the alanine aminotransferase (ALT) reaction and its clinical use",
        "Write a note on the role of NAD+ in metabolism",
        "Describe the sorbitol (polyol) pathway in diabetes"
    ],
    "BAQ": [
        "Name the enzymes bypassing irreversible steps in gluconeogenesis",
        "What is feedback inhibition?",
        "Name the acyl groups in beta-oxidation",
        "What is reverse cholesterol transport?",
        "Name the enzymes activated by glucagon via cAMP",
        "What is the net energy from one mole of palmitate?",
        "Name the enzyme deficient in Gaucher's disease",
        "What is ceramide?",
        "Name the glycogen debranching enzyme activities",
        "What is the role of FAD in metabolism?"
    ]
},

# ══════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════
# BIOCHEMISTRY  PAPER  II
# Covers: Protein Metabolism, Molecular Biology, Nutrition, Clinical Biochemistry
# ══════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════════

"BIOCHEM_P2_2025_W": {
    "subject": "BIOCHEMISTRY", "paper": "PAPER II", "year": 2025, "session": "Winter (Regular)",
    "code": "01113B",
    "syllabus": "Protein Metabolism, Molecular Biology, Nutrition & Clinical Biochemistry",
    "LAQ": [
        "Describe the urea cycle: (a) Reactions and enzymes (b) Compartmentalization — mitochondrial and cytosolic steps (c) Regulation (d) Energy cost (e) Hyperammonemia — deficiency of urea cycle enzymes and clinical features (f) Treatment",
        "Describe DNA replication: (a) Semiconservative replication — Meselson-Stahl experiment (b) Initiation at origin (c) Enzymes — helicase, primase, DNA polymerase III, ligase (d) Leading and lagging strand synthesis (e) Okazaki fragments (f) Fidelity — proofreading"
    ],
    "SAQ": [
        "Write a note on the transamination reaction — AST and ALT",
        "Describe the mechanism of transcription — steps in mRNA synthesis",
        "Write a note on phenylketonuria — enzyme deficiency and dietary management",
        "Describe the blood urea nitrogen (BUN) — clinical interpretation",
        "Write a note on the post-translational modifications of proteins",
        "Describe the genetic code — properties (degeneracy, non-overlapping)",
        "Write a note on haem synthesis — regulation and porphyrias",
        "Describe the plasma enzymes — serum markers of organ damage",
        "Write a note on signal peptide and protein targeting to ER",
        "Describe the biochemical basis of jaundice — types"
    ],
    "BAQ": [
        "Name the urea cycle enzymes and their locations",
        "What is transamination?",
        "Name the purines and pyrimidines",
        "What is codon degeneracy?",
        "Name the fat-soluble vitamins and their functions",
        "What is the normal serum bilirubin?",
        "Name the plasma proteins synthesized in the liver",
        "What is a signal peptide?",
        "Name the types of RNA and their functions",
        "What is the Schilling test used for?"
    ]
},

"BIOCHEM_P2_2025_S": {
    "subject": "BIOCHEMISTRY", "paper": "PAPER II", "year": 2025, "session": "Summer (Supplementary)",
    "code": "01113B",
    "syllabus": "Protein Metabolism, Molecular Biology, Nutrition & Clinical Biochemistry",
    "LAQ": [
        "Describe translation (protein synthesis): (a) Components — ribosomes, tRNA, mRNA (b) Initiation — start codon, initiator tRNA (c) Elongation — aminoacyl-tRNA entry, peptide bond formation, translocation (d) Termination — stop codons (e) Polyribosomes (f) Antibiotic inhibitors of translation",
        "Describe the metabolism of amino acids: (a) Transamination (b) Oxidative deamination — glutamate dehydrogenase (c) Decarboxylation (d) One-carbon metabolism (e) Sulphur amino acid metabolism (f) Inborn errors"
    ],
    "SAQ": [
        "Write a note on vitamin B12 — absorption, transport, and deficiency (megaloblastic anaemia)",
        "Describe the transcription factors and their role in gene expression",
        "Write a note on hyperuricaemia and gout — purine catabolism",
        "Describe serum protein electrophoresis — bands and clinical interpretation",
        "Write a note on folate metabolism and its role in one-carbon transfer",
        "Describe the oncogenes and tumour suppressor genes",
        "Write a note on tyrosinase deficiency and albinism",
        "Describe the liver function tests — biochemical panel",
        "Write a note on the restriction enzymes and their use in biotechnology",
        "Describe the calcium-phosphorus metabolism and its biochemical regulation"
    ],
    "BAQ": [
        "Name the aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases",
        "What is the Shine-Dalgarno sequence?",
        "Name the water-soluble vitamins",
        "What is hyperammonaemia?",
        "Name the plasma enzymes used as biomarkers",
        "What is the normal serum albumin level?",
        "Name the types of mutation",
        "What is CpG island?",
        "Name the essential amino acids",
        "What is the role of tetrahydrofolate?"
    ]
},

"BIOCHEM_P2_2024_W": {
    "subject": "BIOCHEMISTRY", "paper": "PAPER II", "year": 2024, "session": "Winter (Regular)",
    "code": "01113B",
    "syllabus": "Protein Metabolism, Molecular Biology, Nutrition & Clinical Biochemistry",
    "LAQ": [
        "Describe the regulation of gene expression in prokaryotes: (a) Lac operon — induction (b) Trp operon — repression and attenuation (c) Positive and negative regulation (d) Comparison with eukaryotic regulation (e) Enhancers and silencers",
        "Describe the clinical biochemistry of liver disease: (a) LFTs — bilirubin, albumin, PT (b) Liver enzymes — AST, ALT, ALP, GGT (c) Hepatitis — enzyme pattern (d) Cholestasis — enzyme pattern (e) Liver failure — ammonia and hepatic encephalopathy"
    ],
    "SAQ": [
        "Write a note on the catabolism of haemoglobin — from haem to bilirubin to stercobilin",
        "Describe the PCR technique — principle, steps, and applications",
        "Write a note on maple syrup urine disease — enzyme deficiency and biochemical features",
        "Describe the structure of tRNA — cloverleaf model",
        "Write a note on the biochemical diagnosis of myocardial infarction — troponins, CK-MB",
        "Describe the metabolism of methionine and homocysteine",
        "Write a note on the Southern blotting technique",
        "Describe the biochemical basis of renal failure — serum creatinine and BUN",
        "Write a note on vitamin D synthesis and its actions",
        "Describe the structure of DNA — Watson-Crick model"
    ],
    "BAQ": [
        "Name the enzymes in the urea cycle (in order)",
        "What is amino acid catabolism?",
        "Name the stop codons",
        "What is hyperbilirubinaemia?",
        "Name the vitamin K-dependent clotting factors",
        "What is the normal serum ALT level?",
        "Name the DNA repair mechanisms",
        "What is a restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP)?",
        "Name the glucogenic amino acids",
        "What is the function of GGT in clinical diagnosis?"
    ]
},

"BIOCHEM_P2_2024_S": {
    "subject": "BIOCHEMISTRY", "paper": "PAPER II", "year": 2024, "session": "Summer (Supplementary)",
    "code": "01113B",
    "syllabus": "Protein Metabolism, Molecular Biology, Nutrition & Clinical Biochemistry",
    "LAQ": [
        "Describe the catabolism of amino acids: (a) Glucogenic and ketogenic amino acids (b) Fate of carbon skeletons (c) Aromatic amino acid catabolism — phenylalanine, tyrosine (d) Sulphur amino acids (e) Inborn errors — PKU, alkaptonuria, albinism",
        "Describe the biochemical aspects of diabetes mellitus: (a) Normal blood glucose regulation (b) Type 1 DM — insulin deficiency (c) Type 2 DM — insulin resistance (d) Metabolic consequences of insulin deficiency (e) Diabetic ketoacidosis — biochemical basis (f) HbA1c monitoring"
    ],
    "SAQ": [
        "Write a note on the synthesis and secretion of immunoglobulins",
        "Describe CRISPR-Cas9 — mechanism and applications",
        "Write a note on homocystinuria — enzyme deficiency and clinical features",
        "Describe the biochemical tests for kidney function",
        "Write a note on the synthesis of nitric oxide",
        "Describe the mechanism of recombinant DNA technology",
        "Write a note on protein electrophoresis — M-band in myeloma",
        "Describe the catabolism of purines — xanthine oxidase and uric acid",
        "Write a note on the role of zinc in enzyme function",
        "Describe the metabolic changes in starvation"
    ],
    "BAQ": [
        "Name the reactions of ornithine cycle producing ATP",
        "What is protein turnover?",
        "Name the anticodons of Met and Trp",
        "What is pre-hepatic jaundice?",
        "Name the vitamin B complex members",
        "What is creatinine clearance?",
        "Name the zinc-finger proteins",
        "What is a plasmid?",
        "Name the ketogenic amino acids",
        "What is the function of thioredoxin?"
    ]
},

"BIOCHEM_P2_2023_W": {
    "subject": "BIOCHEMISTRY", "paper": "PAPER II", "year": 2023, "session": "Winter (Regular)",
    "code": "01113B",
    "syllabus": "Protein Metabolism, Molecular Biology, Nutrition & Clinical Biochemistry",
    "LAQ": [
        "Describe the biochemical aspects of nutrition: (a) Protein-energy malnutrition — kwashiorkor vs marasmus (b) Essential nutrients (c) Dietary fibre — role (d) Recommended dietary allowances (e) Nutritional assessment — anthropometric and biochemical markers (f) Total parenteral nutrition",
        "Describe transcription in eukaryotes: (a) RNA polymerases — types and roles (b) Promoter elements (c) Initiation, elongation, termination (d) RNA processing — 5' capping, polyadenylation, splicing (e) mRNA export (f) Regulation"
    ],
    "SAQ": [
        "Write a note on the structure and function of haemoglobin — allosteric regulation",
        "Describe the biochemical diagnosis of pancreatitis — serum amylase and lipase",
        "Write a note on the metabolism of galactose and its disorders",
        "Describe the types of mutation and their effects on protein function",
        "Write a note on the diagnostic utility of serum electrolytes",
        "Describe the metabolism of creatine and creatinine",
        "Write a note on microRNA — synthesis and gene silencing mechanism",
        "Describe the biosynthesis of haem",
        "Write a note on the Bohr effect and its clinical significance",
        "Describe the conjugation reactions in drug metabolism"
    ],
    "BAQ": [
        "Name the enzymes deficient in porphyrias",
        "What is nitrogen balance?",
        "Name the non-coding RNAs",
        "What is obstructive jaundice?",
        "Name the trace elements and their biochemical roles",
        "What is the normal serum ALP level?",
        "Name the stages of apoptosis",
        "What is gel electrophoresis?",
        "Name the gluconeogenic precursors",
        "What is the role of thiamine (B1) in metabolism?"
    ]
},

"BIOCHEM_P2_2023_S": {
    "subject": "BIOCHEMISTRY", "paper": "PAPER II", "year": 2023, "session": "Summer (Supplementary)",
    "code": "01113B",
    "syllabus": "Protein Metabolism, Molecular Biology, Nutrition & Clinical Biochemistry",
    "LAQ": [
        "Describe purine and pyrimidine synthesis and catabolism: (a) De novo purine synthesis (b) Salvage pathway (c) HGPRT deficiency — Lesch-Nyhan syndrome (d) Purine catabolism — xanthine oxidase (e) Gout — biochemical basis and treatment (f) Pyrimidine catabolism",
        "Describe the clinical biochemistry of cardiac biomarkers: (a) Troponin I and T — release kinetics (b) CK-MB — fraction (c) Myoglobin (d) BNP (e) LDH isoenzymes (f) Interpretation of results in STEMI vs NSTEMI"
    ],
    "SAQ": [
        "Write a note on the post-translational modification — glycosylation and phosphorylation",
        "Describe the biochemical basis of phenylketonuria and its dietary treatment",
        "Write a note on lipoprotein(a) and cardiovascular risk",
        "Describe the structure of chromatin — nucleosome and histone proteins",
        "Write a note on the biochemical features of renal tubular acidosis",
        "Describe the synthesis of porphyrins and regulation",
        "Write a note on molecular diagnosis — PCR, FISH",
        "Describe the metabolism of amino acids in muscle vs liver",
        "Write a note on the effects of ascorbic acid (vitamin C) deficiency — scurvy",
        "Describe the biochemistry of tumour markers — AFP, PSA, CEA"
    ],
    "BAQ": [
        "Name the enzymes of purine salvage pathway",
        "What is the nitrogen balance?",
        "Name the ribozymes and their functions",
        "What is hepatic jaundice?",
        "Name the minerals required for haemoglobin synthesis",
        "What is the normal serum total protein?",
        "Name the caspases and their role in apoptosis",
        "What is a DNA microarray?",
        "Name the aromatic amino acids",
        "What is the role of niacin (B3) in metabolism?"
    ]
},

"BIOCHEM_P2_2022_W": {
    "subject": "BIOCHEMISTRY", "paper": "PAPER II", "year": 2022, "session": "Winter (Regular)",
    "code": "01113B",
    "syllabus": "Protein Metabolism, Molecular Biology, Nutrition & Clinical Biochemistry",
    "LAQ": [
        "Describe the metabolism of bilirubin: (a) Formation from haemoglobin (b) Transport in blood (c) Hepatic uptake, conjugation, and secretion (d) Intestinal transformation — stercobilin (e) Enterohepatic circulation (f) Types of jaundice — pre-hepatic, hepatic, post-hepatic (g) Neonatal jaundice",
        "Describe the regulation of gene expression in eukaryotes: (a) Chromatin structure — heterochromatin vs euchromatin (b) DNA methylation (c) Histone modification — acetylation (d) Transcription factors (e) Enhancers and silencers (f) miRNA and siRNA"
    ],
    "SAQ": [
        "Write a note on the biochemical features of kwashiorkor",
        "Describe the restriction enzymes — mechanism and use in genetic engineering",
        "Write a note on alkaptonuria — enzyme deficiency, symptoms, and diagnosis",
        "Describe the clinical interpretation of serum electrolyte abnormalities",
        "Write a note on the biosynthesis of nucleotides — de novo vs salvage",
        "Describe the plasma marker enzymes in liver disease",
        "Write a note on the chemistry and functions of vitamins A and D",
        "Describe the metabolism of serine and glycine — one-carbon units",
        "Write a note on the molecular basis of sickle cell disease",
        "Describe the biochemical changes in starvation"
    ],
    "BAQ": [
        "Name the bilirubin-conjugating enzyme",
        "What is the positive nitrogen balance?",
        "Name the base pairs in DNA",
        "What is haemolytic disease of the newborn?",
        "Name the fat-soluble vitamins and deficiency diseases",
        "What is the normal serum direct bilirubin?",
        "Name the types of PCR",
        "What is gene therapy?",
        "Name the imino acids",
        "What is the role of pyridoxal phosphate (B6)?"
    ]
},

"BIOCHEM_P2_2022_S": {
    "subject": "BIOCHEMISTRY", "paper": "PAPER II", "year": 2022, "session": "Summer (Supplementary)",
    "code": "01113B",
    "syllabus": "Protein Metabolism, Molecular Biology, Nutrition & Clinical Biochemistry",
    "LAQ": [
        "Describe DNA damage and repair mechanisms: (a) Types of DNA damage (b) Direct reversal — photoreactivation (c) Base excision repair (d) Nucleotide excision repair — xeroderma pigmentosum (e) Mismatch repair (f) Double-strand break repair",
        "Describe the biochemistry of malnutrition: (a) Protein-energy malnutrition — spectrum (b) Kwashiorkor — pathogenesis and biochemical features (c) Marasmus — features (d) Vitamin deficiencies — ABCD assessment (e) Micronutrient deficiencies — iodine, iron, vitamin A"
    ],
    "SAQ": [
        "Write a note on amino acid catabolism — oxidative deamination",
        "Describe the northern blotting and western blotting techniques",
        "Write a note on the clinical utility of liver biopsy and biochemical tests",
        "Describe the structure of eukaryotic chromosome",
        "Write a note on the biochemical basis of anaemia — iron deficiency vs megaloblastic",
        "Describe the one-carbon metabolism — tetrahydrofolate reactions",
        "Write a note on the clinical biochemistry of thyroid disorders — TSH, free T4",
        "Describe the origin of oncogenes from proto-oncogenes",
        "Write a note on the action of niacin on lipid metabolism",
        "Describe the metabolic syndrome — biochemical criteria"
    ],
    "BAQ": [
        "Name the enzymes of nucleotide excision repair",
        "What is positive nitrogen balance?",
        "Name the tRNA anticodon wobble positions",
        "What is Crigler-Najjar syndrome?",
        "Name the vitamin K-dependent proteins",
        "What is the normal serum uric acid level?",
        "Name the components of a nucleotide",
        "What is a vector in molecular biology?",
        "Name the branched-chain amino acids",
        "What is the role of riboflavin (B2)?"
    ]
},

"BIOCHEM_P2_2021_W": {
    "subject": "BIOCHEMISTRY", "paper": "PAPER II", "year": 2021, "session": "Winter (Regular)",
    "code": "01113B",
    "syllabus": "Protein Metabolism, Molecular Biology, Nutrition & Clinical Biochemistry",
    "LAQ": [
        "Describe the biochemistry of amino acid metabolism: (a) Transamination — enzymes and coenzyme (b) Oxidative deamination — glutamate dehydrogenase (c) Glucose-alanine cycle (d) Urea cycle — steps and disorders (e) Hyperammonaemia (f) Hepatic encephalopathy",
        "Describe the clinical biochemistry of diabetes: (a) Glucose homeostasis (b) Glycated proteins — HbA1c (c) Diabetic nephropathy — microalbuminuria (d) Dyslipidaemia in diabetes (e) Diabetic ketoacidosis — lab findings (f) Monitoring and management"
    ],
    "SAQ": [
        "Write a note on the biochemical basis of gout",
        "Describe the lac operon — induction mechanism",
        "Write a note on the clinical uses of enzymes as drugs — streptokinase, tPA",
        "Describe the metabolism of tyrosine — products and disorders",
        "Write a note on the structure and function of tRNA",
        "Describe the serum protein profile in nephrotic syndrome",
        "Write a note on the chemistry of vitamins B1, B2, and B6",
        "Describe the biochemical changes in liver cirrhosis",
        "Write a note on the renal threshold for glucose",
        "Describe the synthesis of acetylcholine and its role in neurotransmission"
    ],
    "BAQ": [
        "Name the enzymes producing ammonia in the body",
        "What is negative nitrogen balance?",
        "Name the DNA polymerases in prokaryotes",
        "What is Gilbert's syndrome?",
        "Name the water-soluble vitamins and their coenzyme forms",
        "What is the normal serum alkaline phosphatase (ALP)?",
        "Name the types of RNA polymerases in eukaryotes",
        "What is a cloning vector?",
        "Name the sulphur-containing amino acids",
        "What is the role of pyridoxine in amino acid metabolism?"
    ]
},

"BIOCHEM_P2_2021_S": {
    "subject": "BIOCHEMISTRY", "paper": "PAPER II", "year": 2021, "session": "Summer (Supplementary)",
    "code": "01113B",
    "syllabus": "Protein Metabolism, Molecular Biology, Nutrition & Clinical Biochemistry",
    "LAQ": [
        "Describe the molecular biology of cancer: (a) Proto-oncogenes and oncogenes (b) Tumour suppressor genes — p53, Rb (c) Cell cycle and checkpoints (d) Apoptosis and its defects in cancer (e) Tumour markers — AFP, PSA, CEA, CA-125 (f) Targeted therapy",
        "Describe the vitamins: (a) Fat-soluble vitamins — A, D, E, K — sources, functions, deficiency (b) Water-soluble vitamins — B complex and C — sources, coenzyme forms, deficiency (c) Hypervitaminosis — toxicity of A and D"
    ],
    "SAQ": [
        "Write a note on the ELISA technique — principle and applications",
        "Describe the transamination and its diagnostic use (AST, ALT ratio)",
        "Write a note on the metabolic changes in pregnancy",
        "Describe the role of cobalt in vitamin B12 function",
        "Write a note on the clinical biochemistry of pancreatitis",
        "Describe the phosphatidylinositol signalling pathway",
        "Write a note on the action of statins on cholesterol synthesis",
        "Describe the metabolic acidosis and metabolic alkalosis — anion gap",
        "Write a note on haemoglobin variants — sickle cell, thalassaemia",
        "Describe the catabolism of nucleic acids and clinical implications"
    ],
    "BAQ": [
        "Name the tumour markers and the cancers they diagnose",
        "What is nitrogen balance?",
        "Name the post-transcriptional modifications of mRNA",
        "What is Rotor syndrome?",
        "Name the antioxidant vitamins",
        "What is the normal serum GGT level?",
        "Name the signal transduction pathways",
        "What is a cDNA library?",
        "Name the hydroxylation reactions requiring vitamin C",
        "What is the function of cobalamin (B12) in metabolism?"
    ]
},

}

print("Total papers (Physiology + Biochemistry):", len(PAPERS_PHYSIO_BIOCHEM))